Conservation of biodiversity continued Flashcards
What is ex-situ conservation?
Removing the animals from the regular habitat, commonly for breeding programmes
What factors influence captive breeding and release programmes?
Wild population threat, genetic diversity of captive population, in-situ conservation success, realism and is release likely to be successful
What are the problems with keeping species in captivity?
Size, habitat requirement, food source, species interactions, financial constraints and breeding problems
Why might captive breeding of anteaters be hard?
Food requirements- the insects
Why might some plants struggle with captive breeding?
Symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi and plants with specific pollinators may not be replicated
What factors inhibit success in captive breeding?
Conditions for breeding, population interactions, breeding habitat, gene pool size and hybridisation
How may conditions inhibit breeding?
Breeding is often triggered by environmental stimuli and if these conditions aren’t known and therefore not replicated, the breeding won’t occur
How are seahorses effected by captive breeding?
They mate for life and can die of a ‘broken heart’ if separated
How does population interactions affect breeding success?
Many species of bird don’t enter each others territory except for when breeding (blackbirds)
How are flamingos bred in captivity?
They only breed when in large groups, so by putting mirrors around them this illusion can be created
What organisms does hybridisation affect?
Plants as their pollen is carried, animals can be easily separated
What are the methods of increasing breeding success?
Provision of essential conditions for breeding, group dynamics, difficulties in providing required abiotic conditions, artificial insemination, cryopreservation, micro propagation, cloning and embryo transfer
What is cryopreservation?
The storage of semen, eggs and embryos by freezing so they can be used for breeding programmes in the future
What are the benefits or artificial insemination?
Animals don’t have to be transported, mating can be dangerous for large animals, potential partners may not accept each other
What are the benefits of embryo transfers?
Some mammal species have few breeding females and gestation periods can be long, with ET animals of similar species can be used as surrogates
What are some species that do not currently breed?
Northern White Rhinoceros
What is micro-propagation?
Tissue culture where many clusters of cells can be produced from a single plant or tissue sample
What’s the disadvantage of micro-propagation?
The plants produced are genetically identical to the parent cell
What are the key features of successful breeding programmes?
The number of individuals released needs to be sustainable, the habitats must: be large enough, have reliable food sources, low predation/poaching, have suitable breeding sites, water access, support of local human population and legal protection
What are the different forms of release?
Hard and soft
What is hard release?
Releasing individuals with no post-release support, mostly for fish, insects, amphibians and reptiles
What is soft release?
Post-release support such as gradual release into larger areas and provision of food as they learn how to find food themselves, mainly mammals and birds
What problems do individuals face once released?
Finding and recognising food, recognising poisonous food, developing hunting skills, avoiding predators and being accepted socially
Why do we use seed banks?
Store the seeds of wild plant so if they go extinct in the wild they can be regrown
What conditions are the seeds stored under?
Dry and refrigerated
What is the target number for each species?
10,000 to ensure genetic diversity
What are disadvantages of seed banks?
Small gene pool, reduced viability of seed, cannot be used by all species and no evolution can occur
Why are stud books kept?
Prevent inbreeding as it reduces gene pool and leads to genetic weaknesses
What are the approaches to habitat conservation?
Designated protected areas, land ownership and habitat creation and management
What do agri-environmental schemes do?
Provide financial support to farmers to reward and encourage environmentally beneficial developments
What are some agri-environmentally schemes that have been used?
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA), Countryside Stewardship Schemes (CSS), Environmental Stewardship Scheme (ESS) and Countryside Stewardship (CS)
What are the aims of agri-environmental schemes?
Conserve wildlife, maintain and enhance landscape quality and character, protect the historic environment, promote public access and understanding and protect natural resources
What features are contributed to agri-environmental schemes?
Beetle banks, hedgerows, stone walls, ditch management, field buffer strips, wild bird seeds, low input grasslands, protected archeological sites, management to reduce soil erosion and protection of in-field trees
What features are rewarded with higher payments on agri-environment schemes?
Wildflower-rich grass field margins, restoration of wet grassland, water meadow restoration, public access and maintenance/restoration of sand dunes, hedgerows, hay meadows, salt marsh, moorlands and ponds
What are some unintentional habitats created by humans?
Reservoirs, flooded sand and gravel pits, roadside verges, hedgerows and ornamental gardens
What habitats have been created intentionally for conservation?
Wetlands, woodlands, wildflower meadows and artificial coral reefs
What factors are considered in intentional habitat creation?
Area, biological corridors, habitat shape, habitat diversity, vegetation age structure, water, dissolved oxygen, temperature, light levels, pH, food, predation, competitors, pollination, seed dispersal, control of pathogens, species re-introduction,
What organisms benefit from smaller habitat areas?
Frogs, toads and newts breed more successfully in ponds that are too small to support predatory fish that would eat their eggs and tadpoles
What are the benefits of biological corridors?
Link isolated areas so if a species dies out in one area then re-colonisation is possible
How can we alter light levels to increase biodiversity of created habitats?
Felling of certain trees to allow light levels to pass onto smaller vegetation underneath
Where do plants with emergent vegetation live?
Can only support their weight in shallow water where roots can be held firmly by sediments
How can oxygen concentration in a river be improved?
By narrowing the river, turbulence and flow rate will increase
How can warmer areas be provided for egg development (lizard)?
Clearing where vegetation has been removed
How do forest floor plants overcome low light levels?
Additional chemicals such as anthocyanin and carotenoids, which can absorb wavelengths of light that have passed through the chlorphyll
What colour wavelengths do chlorophyll absorb?
Red and blue
What plant can survive in acidic conditions?
Sundew
How does pollination affect the creation of habitats for insects?
Plants that pollinate all year round may be necessary as this will provide food for the insects
What’s an example of re-introduction?
The Gray Wolf in Yellowstone National Park
What species have been successfully re-introduced into the UK?
Red Kite, White-tailed Eagle, Eurasian Otter, Common Crane, Great Bustard and the Large Blue Butterfly
How do sheep contribute to grazing?
Eat shorter grass and some breeds eat bushes and can be used to control invasive shrub
How do ponies contribute to grazing?
Selectively eat grass and usually avoid flowering plants but they will eat invasive bracken with is avoided by most grazing animals
How do cattle contribute to grazing?
Remove long rough grass
What are the benefits of mowing?
Removes all vegetation including thorny or bad-tasting
What is coppicing?
Trees are cut to the ground level every 3-30 years depending on the intended use of the harvested branches
What is pollarding?
Similar to coppicing but they are cut at levels at which the deer can eat regrowing branches
What are the features of temperate broadleaf woodland?
Regular water supply, summers not very hot, winters not very cold and seasonality
What is the importance of temperate broadleaf woodland?
High biodiversity, resources, climate control, soil erosion control and recreation
What are the threats to temperate broadleaf woodland?
Deforestation for other land uses, fragmentation of remaining woodland and management change
What are the conservation efforts for temperate broadleaf woodland?
Designated protected areas, legal protection of ancient woodland in UK and conservation management
Where are the temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Northern Hemisphere is Europe, East North America and East Asia
What are deciduous trees?
Trees that lose their leaves annually
What trees are typically found in temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Oak, beech and ash
How to temperate broadleaf woodlands provide food sources?
Deer, Wild boar, fruit, nuts and herbs
Why are temperate broadleaf woodlands important for recreation?
Walking, camping, cycling and picnics
What are some of the threats facing temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Urban development, transportation infrastructure, mineral extraction, farmland and plantations of single species
What are some of the conservation activities for temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Coppicing, afforestation and pollarding
What is an ancient woodland?
One that existed before 1600
What are the features of tropical rainforest?
Warm, high rainfall, high levels of light, inter-species relationships and seasonality
What is the importance of tropical rainforests?
High biodiversity, resources, carbon sequestration, hydrological cycle and soil erosion control
What are the threats to tropical rainforests?
Fuelwood collection, timber for construction and furniture, agricultural expansion, mineral extraction, reservoirs, global climate change and exploitation of individual species
What are the conservation efforts made for tropical rainforests?
Establishment of protected areas, debt for nature swaps and sustainable exploitation
How has the tropical rainforest impacted the organisms living there?
They have a narrower range of tolerance as the abiotic conditions are consistent and they have been for along time so evolution of the organisms has stopped
What are epiphytes?
Plants that live on other plants
How does a lack of seasons benefit the plants and therefore animals?
They don’t have to flower at a certain time, meaning there is less competition for pollination and seed dispersal and this means nectar is available all year round
How do tropical rainforests impact the hydrological cycle?
Very important for increasing downwind rainfall, over half the rainfall there comes from transpiration rather than the sea
How does fuelwood use threaten the tropical rainforests?
Wood is the most important domestic fuel in rural areas of LEDCs, the rate of collection > rate of replanting and regrowth
What minerals are commonly present under tropical rainforests?
Iron, gold, silver, copper and aluminium
How does climate change threaten tropical rainforests?
Increased likely hood of droughts and therefore forest fires, decrease humidity will hurt frogs and epiphytic plants
What movements allow the establishment of protected areas in tropical rainforests?
RAMSAR if wetland and Tropical Forest Conservation Act USA
What organisations allow sustainable exploitation of tropical rainforests?
ITTO and CITES
What are the features of tropical coral reefs?
Cnidarians, nutrition systems, high light levels, warm, stable temperatures, low turbidity and constant salinity
What’s the importance of tropical coral reefs?
Fisheries, erosion protection, medicinal discoveries, climate control and tourism
What are the threats to tropical coral reefs?
Physical damage caused by human activities, souvenir collection, sedimentation, climate change, pollution, fishing and introduced species
What are the conservation efforts for tropical coral reefs?
Control of damaging activities and establishment of protected areas
What are the three ways that tropical coral reefs feed?
Cilia (finger-like projections) trap plankton passing by, which are passed into the stomach and digested
Nematocysts- stinging cells stab and kill the plankton
Zooxanthellae- photosynthetic algae that live inside coral polyps
What are the abiotic conditions required for tropical coral reefs?
Light, temperature constant, salinity constant, turbidity low and immersion possible
What is the benefit of the physical structure of coral reefs?
Provides many places for animals to live as well as being a source of food that supports a rich complex food web
How many marine species do coral reefs support?
Over 1/4
How do tropical coral reefs support climate control?
Each carbonate molecule requires the absorption of a carbon dioxide molecule
How do tropical coral reefs help erosion control?
Coral reefs absorb the energy of waves that would otherwise have eroded or washed away these islands and fragments of coral help build up the shore as they form sand
How does CITES Appendix II protect coral reefs?
Trade in about 2000 coral species is banned
How do oil spill threaten tropical coral reefs?
Large oil spills cover and prevent photosynthesis and at lower concentrations the oil is still toxic
How does coral bleaching occur?
When the coral are stressed due to intensified abiotic conditions (consequence of climate change) they eject the zooxanthellae which give them there colour
Ocean acidification can also kill algae
What’s a predator of coral polyps and where do they live?
The Crown of Thorns Starfish and the Indian and Pacific ocean
How does coastal development threaten coral reefs?
Can destroy coral reefs directly and increase turbidity
How do mangroves and seagrass beds help tropical coral reefs?
They suspend sediments and reduce water turbidity
How are tropical coral reefs established as protected areas?
MPA- marine protected areas
How does fixing mooring buoys help tropical coral reefs?
It stops boats using their anchors
What management practices are used to protect tropical coral reefs?
Teaching divers not to touch coral, control or banning of fishing, sustainable development of ecotourism and environmental protection of other areas
How is fishing controlled?
Length of fishing seasons, minimal and maximum catchable size, ‘No Take Zones’ and restrictions on damaging fishing methods
What recovery method has been used for the loss of tropical coral reefs?
Artificial reefs by sinking ‘reef balls’ or boats and oil rigs
What are the features of deep water coral reefs?
Cold and dark with slow coral growth
What is the importance of deep water coral reefs?
Research and fisheries- they were only recently discovered (1970s) so not much research has been done yet, they do support a large biomass of fish
What are the threats to deep water coral reefs?
Trawling, oil and gas exploration and ocean acidification
What are the conservation efforts for deep water coral reefs?
Establishment of protected areas and control of damaging activities (trawling)
What is the difference between deep water coral reefs and tropical coral reefs?
Deep water coral reefs do not have photosynthetic algae and so have much less food energy available and so grow much slower
When did populations of the orange roughy decline significantly?
In 1990 global catch because the population was over-exploited
How does trawling affect deep water coral reefs?
They are damaged as a by-product and slow to recover
What are some protected areas of deep water coral reefs?
Darwins mound off NW Scotland and Oculina bank of Florida coast
What are the features of oceanic islands?
Isolation, few or no indigenous mammal species and endemic species
What is the importance of oceanic islands?
Endemic species
What are the threats to oceanic islands?
Species exploitation, introduced species, habitat change and sea level rise
What are the conservation efforts for oceanic islands?
Eradication of introduced species and control of developments and visitors
What’s an example of oceanic islands?
Galapagos
What mammals may colonise oceanic islands?
Seals and bats, but not terrestrial mammals
What are some species with unusual characteristics?
Giant Galapagos Tortoise and flightless bird species
How much of bird, reptile and plant species do oceanic islands contain?
Over 20%
Why are endemic species important?
High potential for medical research and physiological discoveries
How might habitat change occur?
Tourism and urban and agricultural developments
In what form can introduced threats to the oceanic islands be?
Predators, herbivore, plants and pathogens
What introduced species was controlled in Ramsay island (Wales, UK)?
Rats
What introduced species was controlled in Diego Garcia (British Indian Ocean territory)?
Cat
What are the feature of mangroves?
Tropical climates, halophytic trees and low oxygen availability
What is the importance of mangroves?
Coastal erosion protection, fisheries, timber supplies and trap suspended solids
What are the threats to mangroves?
Clearance for urban developments/aquaculture, coral reef destruction, pollution and global climate change
What are the conservation efforts for mangroves?
Reforestation, control of damaging activities and establishment of protected areas
What are mangroves?
Coastal forests that grow in saline, oxygen deficient soils, usually found in tropical areas
What species are provided habitats by mangroves?
Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, sponges, fish, molluscs, reptiles and birds
How do mangroves help prevent coastal erosion?
Vegetation and prop roots absorb wave energy, reducing impacts of storms and hurricanes
How do mangroves provide medicinal resources?
Extracts of leaves are being used to research antimicrobial medicines to treat antibiotic resistant bacteria
How have Sri Lanka’s mangroves been affected?
Over 75% lost but the rest protected in 2015
Why is natural regeneration of mangroves quick?
Mangrove seeds produce seeds that germinate before they fall off the parent tree, into the sea where they are carried by currents
What happens when the sprouted shoot touches sand?
Roots are produced and anchored the young plant to the seabed
What are the features of Antartica?
Large landmass, 98% ice cover (4.8km deep), -49C, low precipitation, high altitude, high albedo, high levels of marine nutrients (abundant marine life), large variations in ice cover and extreme seasonal variation
What is the importance of Antarctica?
Water store, ice albedo, carbon sequestration, resources and research
What are the threats to Antarctica?
GCC, ozone depletion, tourism, overfishing, future mineral exploitation and scientific research
What are the conservation efforts for Antarctica?
The Antarctic Treaty (1959), fisheries control, waste management and tourism control
How does the summer sunlight support the food web in Antarctica?
Rich phytoplankton bloom
What is the importance of very low temperatures in Antarctica?
Little or no plant growth, slow bacterial activity on land, cold water can hold more O2
What is the importance of low precipitation in Antarctica?
Slow plant growth
What resources are found in Antarctica?
Metals and oils
What research is done in Antarctica?
Climate research
How does Antarctica help with carbon sequestration?
When the many plankton die they take CO2 with them to the seabed to form sediments
How does ozone depletion impact the organisms in Antarctica?
Many land organisms aren’t impacted by UV has the have thick fur of feathers, however the planktonic organisms are more vulnerable, which them impacts the whole food chain
What are the concerns with tourism in Antarctica?
Disturbance, increased pollution, introduction of non-indigenous species and pathogens
What species have been overexploited in the past leading to a decrease in population in Antarctica?
Some whales and fur seals
What mineral deposits are in Antarctica?
Coal, oil, iron, copper, chromium and platinum
What threats does GCC pose?
Glaciers move faster to ocean due to lubrication by meltwater, land ice may become exposed to ocean
Why does the ice surrounding Antarctica show an upward trend?
Stronger winds are spreading ice further, warmer air can hold more H2O so more snowfall, melting land ice creates more freshwater that freezes easier
Who regulates fishing in Antarctica?
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLS)
How is tourism controlled?
No litter, no accommodation on ground, maximum 100 people on shore, trained guides, 5m from wildlife, protective clothing to stop pathogens
How many countries participated in The Antarctic Treaty?
52, many active in the area
