P1 - Virtue Ethics

Question 1

What is eudaimonia

Answer 1

[for Aristotle] that which is the good for humans, defined and rejected variously as: pleasure, honour, happiness, complete well-being; defined finally as the intellectual virtue of theoria (scientific) contemplation

Question 2

What claim does Aristotle begins Nicomachean Ethics with

Answer 2

“Every art and every enquiry, and similarly every action as well as choice, is held to aim at some good”

Question 3

Disagreement about the final end (happiness

Answer 3

there is some disagreement about the final end, but most people agree that this final end is happiness

• some say that happiness is pleasure, Aristotle rejects this because even cattle experience pleasure
• happiness is recieving political honour, but since it is given by others, it can hardly be the final end
• others say it is wealth, but wealth is just a means to an end

Question 4

What is the function argument

Answer 4

the human good is a function of the soul in accord with virtue
there is a relation between goodness and function

Question 5

Function argument - knife example

Answer 5

a good knife is one that works well and fulfils its purpose: its blade will be sharp, its handle will be engineered for the best grip and it will cut well

Question 6

What is the function of humans?

Answer 6

exercise of reason/ the rational part of the soul – according to Aristotle is unique to humans

“thus the good life is not the kind in which we eat, reproduce, sense, move, remember or imagine well [plants and animals do that], but that in which we exercise reason well

Question 7

Aristotle’s conclusion of the human telos

Answer 7

the telos - the end or purpose of human beings - is focused on the rational soul
the good life will be one in which reason is exercised well

Question 8

How does one exercise reason well

Answer 8

by exercising virtue (exercising moral exellence)

Question 9

How is the human soul divided

Answer 9

two aspects of the human soul: the rational and non-rational

Question 10

What is the non-rational part of the soul

Answer 10

has moral virtues (virtues of character), such as: courage, patientce and modesty
these virtues are formed by habit (helped by the rational soul)

Question 11

What is the rational part of the soul

Answer 11

intellectual virtues: theoretical virtues like doing maths, physics, etc. and practical virutes such as understanding, judgement and practical wisdom
these intellectual virtues are those which contribute most to the good life, because they are under the control of reason

Question 12

How must a virtuous person exericse the two aspects of the human soul

Answer 12

they must:

• know what they are doing in any situation, and not act through ignorance, and
• must choose to act virtuously

Question 13

How do we perform virtues well? (quote)

Answer 13

“virtue, therefore is a characteristic marked by choice, residing in the mean relative to us, a characteristic defined by reason and as the prudent person would define it. Virtue is also a mean with respect to two vices, the one vice related to excess, the other to deficiency…”

Question 14

what is the mean (doctrine of the mean)

Answer 14

the median - specific virtues lie between two extremes - the excess and the deficiency
the mean is relative to the disposition of each individual

Question 15

what is phronimos

Answer 15

the man of practical wisdom who, in Aristotle’s system, is best qualified to define virtuous behaviour in any situation, his practical wisdom having been acquired by constant practice and habit

Question 16

what are the two extremes

Answer 16

excess and deficiency

Question 17

what actions can be virtuous

Answer 17

only voluntary actions can be virtuous - needs to have proper intentions

• proper intention does not include things like desire, or a wish, or an opinion, must involve deliberation and a choice made on the basis of reason
• one can only intend something which one has the power to do

Question 18

what does Aristotle conclude the good life of humans is

Answer 18

the good life for humans is theoria (comtemplation)

Question 19

Strengths of Virtue ethics - holistic

Answer 19

virtue ethics is holistic, the whole personality is considered: excellence of character; the development of theoretical reasoning (maths, physics and philosophy); the development of practical skills such as judgement, practical wisdom and deliberation

Question 20

Strengths of Virtue ethics - human-centred

Answer 20

it is a human-centred ethic

values strength of moral character above following rules regardless of whether the rules are good, bad or indifferent

Question 21

Strengths of Virtue ethics - flexible

Answer 21

allows for moral judgement, does not have the problem of deontological ethics wehre rules conflict
also avoids trying to guess the future

Question 22

Strengths of Virtue ethics - helps solve problems

Answer 22

does not make the claim that there is a perfect solution for every moral problem, but it instead it equips people to deal with those problms

Question 23

Strengths of Virtue ethics - eudaimonia

Answer 23

has a teleologial focus of eudaimonia - complete well-being, so is good for society

Question 24

Strengths of Virtue ethics - straight-forward

Answer 24

you do not have to be mentally equipped to deal with things like NML’s difficult doctrine of double effect
instead, by following the example of virtuous people, it is more open to making mistakes (being human)
virtues is developed over a complete lifetime, so there is always room for development and improvement

Question 25

Strengths of Virtue ethics - doctrine of the mean

Answer 25

means that virtue ethics is flexible with regard to situations and persons

Question 26

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - ignores cultural relativism

Answer 26

different societies have different virtues, so what is virtuous in one society/ time may be different in another
therefore, how do we decide which set of virtues is right

Question 27

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - circular argument

Answer 27

Aristotle’s argument seems to be circular:
how should we behave? we should act virtuously
what is a virtuous act? an act done by someone who is virtuous
how does one become virtuous? by acting virtuously

Question 28

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - usefulness in national and international politics

Answer 28

although virtue ethics is useful for individual morality, governments cannot make ethical decisions based on individual character.
So virtue ethics seems less effective in the wider context

Question 29

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - accuracy

Answer 29

how accurate is Aristotle’s function argument?

• Aquinas adopted function argument into NML, claiming that the function of human sexuality is reproduction – but this seems weak as human sexuality can also form loving relationship, physical pleasure, etc.
• the claim that each part of the body has a specific function therefore the whole human must have a specific function seems to be a fallacy of composition
• the view that humans have a specific function is teleological

Question 30

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - anthropocentric (human-centred)

Answer 30

Aristotle’s system is focused on the good for humans - he argues that humans are unique for having rationality while animal souls only have basic knowledge
but this is wrong, there are cases where naimals are also able to exercise rationality or show more unique thinking processes, so Aristotle undervalues animals

Question 31

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - difficulty in applying to moral dilemmas

Answer 31

difficult to apply to moral dilemmas such as embryo research and cloning
virtues tend to be practiced over a lifetime while moral issues require immediate answers

Question 32

Weaknesses of Virtue ethics - simplicity

Answer 32

people need laws in order to have a clear understanding of what they should and should not do
there are many people who refuse to act virtuously and who would go on refusing to act virtuously throughout their lives
people would need guidelines and consequences