P1 - Design Argument

Question 1

What is a posteriori

Answer 1

Arguments based on sense experience, we observe the world through touch, taste, hearing, smell and sight, and we draw conclusions form what our senses tell us

Question 2

What is an inductive argument

Answer 2

Where we use premises to supply strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion
They are about what is probably true, they give us new knowledge
They can be used to argue from what we see in the world back to the supposed cause

Question 3

Paley’s argument as inductive and a posteriori

Answer 3

Since his argument is a posteriori and inductive, his conclusion that the universe was designed is at best probably true, and it might turn out to be false

Question 4

Paley’s argument, based on three particular observations about the world

Answer 4

Complexity: the complexity of the natural world, looks at complex biological organisms and organs

Qua-Regularity: the regularity of orbits, comets, moons and planets and seasons of the year

Qua-Purpose: observes machines humans built which are built for a purpose, complexity and regularity implies that it has a purpose

Question 5

Summary of Paley’s inductive design argument (on the basis of his observations)

Answer 5

Some objects in the world show clear evidence that they are designed due to complexity and regularity from which we can infer that they were made for a purpose
The universe appears to exhibit complexity and regularity, from which we can infer that it was made for a purpose
So it is likely that the universe was designed

Question 6

What is natural theology

Answer 6

The view that questions about God’s existence, nature and attributes can be answered without referring to scripture or to any other form of special revelation, by using reason, science, history and observation

Question 7

Summary of Paley’s analogically design argument

Answer 7

1. A watch has complex parts, each with a function, and the parts work together for a specific purpose
2. So the watch must have been designed by a watch maker
3. Similarly, the universe has parts that function together for a purpose
4. So the universe must have been designed by a universe maker
5. The universe is a far more wonderful design than a watch, so its designer is much greater than any human designer
6. The universe designer is God

Question 8

Paley’s supporting examples for his analogical argument

Answer 8

Eyes - they are superbly adapted for vision, has the right arrangement to achieve its purpose of seeing

Fins and Gills - so fishes are perfectly adapted to live in water

Wings - with properly dense bones perfectly adapted to flight

Stars, planets and comets - with regularity in their orbits

Question 9

Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - lesser being

Answer 9

Even if we grant that the universe was designed, there is no evidence that this was the God of Christian theism. A lesser being could’ve designed the universe / it could be a team of lesser beings

• intelligent minds usually have physical bodies, there is no obvious reason to suppose that the designer of this universe was a metaphysical being, it could’ve been mortal and died long ago
• design is normally from teamwork, there is no reason for the designer of the universe to be a single being, could be a team of lesser beings

Question 10

Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - evil and suffering

Answer 10

Existence of evil and suffering suggests that there is a limited designer (referenced Epicurus’ questions about the existence of evil)
Inconsistent triad: God is omnipotent, God is omnibenevolent, evil exists

Hume suggests that the existence of evil makes it so the world might not be from a being of infinite power, wisdom and goodness - the universe could’ve been designed by an infant or a senile God

Question 11

Hume’s comment on evil and suffering

Answer 11

“Is [God] willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent.
Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent
Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?
- Hume

Question 12

Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - unsound analogies

Answer 12

Analogies between the way the universe works and the way machines work are unsound
The world may have grown themselves without the need for a designer
E.g. Darwin’s evolution theory

Question 13

Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - anthropomorphism

Answer 13

By making an analogy comparing human designers to the designer of the universe seems anthropomorphic - we are trying to explain the universe in our own image

We have no experience or knowledge at designing a universe, by imagining God to be like a human designer would be anthropomorphic

Question 14

Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - universe created by chance

Answer 14

The universe could have developed into a comparatively ordered state simply by chance
Hume’s ‘Epicurean Hypothesis’ — the basic constituents of the word were indivisible atoms, the world is no more or less than arranging atoms, therefore it was inevitable that the atoms would arrive to an ordered state

Question 15

Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - lesser beings as designers

Answer 15

Even if the universe was designed, the all-powerful God of Christian theism is a greater cause than is needed to account for that design
The universe could well have been produced by a team of lesser beings, or even by designers who ‘botched and bungled’ it

Question 16

Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - existence of evil

Answer 16

The existence of evil is a powerful argument against the belief that the designer is all-loving and all-powerful
Difficult to reconcile the sheer amount of evil in this world alone with the existence of a good designer God

Question 17

Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - theory of evolution

Answer 17

Evolution seems to show that nature designs itself without the need for God
Suggests that the universe has no purpose, no designer, no plan
It could just be atoms going through evolution and creating order in the universe

Question 18

Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - anthropomorphism

Answer 18

We have no experience of universe-making, so our ideas about this are anthropomorphic

Question 19

Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - nature designing itself

Answer 19

Supported by evolutionary theory — suggests that Hume is probably right in claiming that the universe designed itself in the first place
E.g. the multiverse theory

Question 20

Strengths of Paley’s argument - Occam’s razor

Answer 20

Swinburne claims that the existence of an all-powerful God is a simpler and therefore better explanation of the appearance of design in the universe
“… simplicity is always evidence for truth”

Question 21

Strengths of Paley’s argument - unavoidable evil

Answer 21

Evil may be unavoidable in order for God to bring about good

• Free Will Defence: freedom to choose between the highest goods and highest evils means there must be goods and evil in the universe
• Process theology: God is all-loving, but not all-powerful, cannot prevent evil
• Soul-making: evil is ‘soul-making’, without evil we could never learn to love the good

Question 22

Strengths of Paley’s argument - evolution

Answer 22

Swinburne: evolution explains nothing, since it is regulated entirely on scientific laws, could be God who designed these laws
It could be argued that evolution is compatible with belief in God

Question 23

Strengths of Paley’s argument - metaphysical and transcendent designer

Answer 23

His conclusion that the designer exists beyond the universe seems reasonable despite the anthropomorphic language he uses
The designer must be metaphysical, since it would be impossible to design such as system from the inside

Question 24

What is the anthropic principle

Answer 24

‘Anthropic’ means ‘related to humans’
So the anthropic principle is that there is a direct link between our observation of the universe and the ‘boundary conditions’ which brought it into existence
So the boundary conditions had to be ‘fine tuned’ by God, otherwise intelligent life could never have developed: it is no accident that we are here

Question 25

Strengths of Paley’s argument - ‘nature shows intention’ supported by anthropic principle

Answer 25

Points out that there are ‘boundary conditions’ that have to be ‘fine-tuned’ for an ordered universe containing intelligent life to develop

Question 26

Strengths of Paley’s argument - the simplicity of the argument

Answer 26

Since the argument is inductive - based on what we observe

Question 27

Status of Paley’s argument as proof - inductive argument

Answer 27

Inductive arguments can amount to ‘proofs’ when all the evidence points to the truth of the conclusion
Paley’s argument is inductive, but its evidence does not amount to scientific proof since we have no way of assessing the degree of probability of his argument
- e.g. Paley’s evidence about the regularity of the orbits is not strong evidence for God as gravity can also explain the regularity of orbits

Question 28

Status of Paley’s argument as proof - best explanation for the order in the universe

Answer 28

His argument could well be the best explanation of the order we see in the universe
It is a very simple explanation and for those who believe in God, it amounts to a personal proof

Question 29

Status of Paley’s argument as proof - proof could only come through religious experience

Answer 29

For some individuals who believe in God, Paley’s design argument could not be a proof, because proof could only come through religious experience

Question 30

Status of Paley’s argument as proof - no status as deductive proof

Answer 30

No inductive argument can ever be logically true, because inductive arguments are based on observation so we can never be 100% certain that our observations are correct
So Paley’s argument is at best probably true

Question 31

Value for religious faith - supports faith by reasoning

Answer 31

Paley’s argument supports the view that existence of God can be seen in nature through observation and reasoning
Although it cannot prove God’s existence, it demonstrates that we can use reason and observation to talk rationally and meaningfully about God
Therefore there is a clear support for religious faith

Question 32

Value for religious faith - religious defence against atheism

Answer 32

Atheists claim that religion is unreasonable but they have no more evidence that God does not exist than theists — therefore if atheists can speculate that ‘God does not exist’ is reasonable, then theists can speculate that God does exist
Therefore Paley’s argument is a reasonable claim that God exists

Question 33

Value for religious faith - simplicity in Paley’s argument in providing a basis for belief

Answer 33

The simplicity of Paley’s argument could provide a basis for belief
Belief in God does not depend just on the Design Argument (others like Cosmological argument are also sufficient)

Question 34

Value for religious faith - H.H. Price

Answer 34

‘Belief in’ and ‘belief that’
Paley’s argument provides evidence for belief that God exists and it also comments on the wonderful design of the universe, suggesting that this supports belief in God

Question 35

Hume’s ‘dialogues concerning natural religion’ quote that opposes Paley’s design argument

Answer 35

“this world, for all he knows, is very faulty and imperfect compared to a superior standard; and was only the first rude essay of some infant deity who afterwards abandoned it.”