P1 - Design Argument Flashcards
What is a posteriori
Arguments based on sense experience, we observe the world through touch, taste, hearing, smell and sight, and we draw conclusions form what our senses tell us
What is an inductive argument
Where we use premises to supply strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion
They are about what is probably true, they give us new knowledge
They can be used to argue from what we see in the world back to the supposed cause
Paley’s argument as inductive and a posteriori
Since his argument is a posteriori and inductive, his conclusion that the universe was designed is at best probably true, and it might turn out to be false
Paley’s argument, based on three particular observations about the world
Complexity: the complexity of the natural world, looks at complex biological organisms and organs
Qua-Regularity: the regularity of orbits, comets, moons and planets and seasons of the year
Qua-Purpose: observes machines humans built which are built for a purpose, complexity and regularity implies that it has a purpose
Summary of Paley’s inductive design argument (on the basis of his observations)
Some objects in the world show clear evidence that they are designed due to complexity and regularity from which we can infer that they were made for a purpose
The universe appears to exhibit complexity and regularity, from which we can infer that it was made for a purpose
So it is likely that the universe was designed
What is natural theology
The view that questions about God’s existence, nature and attributes can be answered without referring to scripture or to any other form of special revelation, by using reason, science, history and observation
Summary of Paley’s analogically design argument
- A watch has complex parts, each with a function, and the parts work together for a specific purpose
- So the watch must have been designed by a watch maker
- Similarly, the universe has parts that function together for a purpose
- So the universe must have been designed by a universe maker
- The universe is a far more wonderful design than a watch, so its designer is much greater than any human designer
- The universe designer is God
Paley’s supporting examples for his analogical argument
Eyes - they are superbly adapted for vision, has the right arrangement to achieve its purpose of seeing
Fins and Gills - so fishes are perfectly adapted to live in water
Wings - with properly dense bones perfectly adapted to flight
Stars, planets and comets - with regularity in their orbits
Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - lesser being
Even if we grant that the universe was designed, there is no evidence that this was the God of Christian theism. A lesser being could’ve designed the universe / it could be a team of lesser beings
- intelligent minds usually have physical bodies, there is no obvious reason to suppose that the designer of this universe was a metaphysical being, it could’ve been mortal and died long ago
- design is normally from teamwork, there is no reason for the designer of the universe to be a single being, could be a team of lesser beings
Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - evil and suffering
Existence of evil and suffering suggests that there is a limited designer (referenced Epicurus’ questions about the existence of evil)
Inconsistent triad: God is omnipotent, God is omnibenevolent, evil exists
Hume suggests that the existence of evil makes it so the world might not be from a being of infinite power, wisdom and goodness - the universe could’ve been designed by an infant or a senile God
Hume’s comment on evil and suffering
“Is [God] willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent.
Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent
Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?
- Hume
Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - unsound analogies
Analogies between the way the universe works and the way machines work are unsound
The world may have grown themselves without the need for a designer
E.g. Darwin’s evolution theory
Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - anthropomorphism
By making an analogy comparing human designers to the designer of the universe seems anthropomorphic - we are trying to explain the universe in our own image
We have no experience or knowledge at designing a universe, by imagining God to be like a human designer would be anthropomorphic
Hume’s arguments against Paley’s - universe created by chance
The universe could have developed into a comparatively ordered state simply by chance
Hume’s ‘Epicurean Hypothesis’ — the basic constituents of the word were indivisible atoms, the world is no more or less than arranging atoms, therefore it was inevitable that the atoms would arrive to an ordered state
Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - lesser beings as designers
Even if the universe was designed, the all-powerful God of Christian theism is a greater cause than is needed to account for that design
The universe could well have been produced by a team of lesser beings, or even by designers who ‘botched and bungled’ it
Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - existence of evil
The existence of evil is a powerful argument against the belief that the designer is all-loving and all-powerful
Difficult to reconcile the sheer amount of evil in this world alone with the existence of a good designer God
Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - theory of evolution
Evolution seems to show that nature designs itself without the need for God
Suggests that the universe has no purpose, no designer, no plan
It could just be atoms going through evolution and creating order in the universe
Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - anthropomorphism
We have no experience of universe-making, so our ideas about this are anthropomorphic
Weaknesses of Paley’s design argument - nature designing itself
Supported by evolutionary theory — suggests that Hume is probably right in claiming that the universe designed itself in the first place
E.g. the multiverse theory
Strengths of Paley’s argument - Occam’s razor
Swinburne claims that the existence of an all-powerful God is a simpler and therefore better explanation of the appearance of design in the universe
“… simplicity is always evidence for truth”
Strengths of Paley’s argument - unavoidable evil
Evil may be unavoidable in order for God to bring about good
- Free Will Defence: freedom to choose between the highest goods and highest evils means there must be goods and evil in the universe
- Process theology: God is all-loving, but not all-powerful, cannot prevent evil
- Soul-making: evil is ‘soul-making’, without evil we could never learn to love the good
Strengths of Paley’s argument - evolution
Swinburne: evolution explains nothing, since it is regulated entirely on scientific laws, could be God who designed these laws
It could be argued that evolution is compatible with belief in God
Strengths of Paley’s argument - metaphysical and transcendent designer
His conclusion that the designer exists beyond the universe seems reasonable despite the anthropomorphic language he uses
The designer must be metaphysical, since it would be impossible to design such as system from the inside
What is the anthropic principle
‘Anthropic’ means ‘related to humans’
So the anthropic principle is that there is a direct link between our observation of the universe and the ‘boundary conditions’ which brought it into existence
So the boundary conditions had to be ‘fine tuned’ by God, otherwise intelligent life could never have developed: it is no accident that we are here
Strengths of Paley’s argument - ‘nature shows intention’ supported by anthropic principle
Points out that there are ‘boundary conditions’ that have to be ‘fine-tuned’ for an ordered universe containing intelligent life to develop
Strengths of Paley’s argument - the simplicity of the argument
Since the argument is inductive - based on what we observe
Status of Paley’s argument as proof - inductive argument
Inductive arguments can amount to ‘proofs’ when all the evidence points to the truth of the conclusion
Paley’s argument is inductive, but its evidence does not amount to scientific proof since we have no way of assessing the degree of probability of his argument
- e.g. Paley’s evidence about the regularity of the orbits is not strong evidence for God as gravity can also explain the regularity of orbits
Status of Paley’s argument as proof - best explanation for the order in the universe
His argument could well be the best explanation of the order we see in the universe
It is a very simple explanation and for those who believe in God, it amounts to a personal proof
Status of Paley’s argument as proof - proof could only come through religious experience
For some individuals who believe in God, Paley’s design argument could not be a proof, because proof could only come through religious experience
Status of Paley’s argument as proof - no status as deductive proof
No inductive argument can ever be logically true, because inductive arguments are based on observation so we can never be 100% certain that our observations are correct
So Paley’s argument is at best probably true
Value for religious faith - supports faith by reasoning
Paley’s argument supports the view that existence of God can be seen in nature through observation and reasoning
Although it cannot prove God’s existence, it demonstrates that we can use reason and observation to talk rationally and meaningfully about God
Therefore there is a clear support for religious faith
Value for religious faith - religious defence against atheism
Atheists claim that religion is unreasonable but they have no more evidence that God does not exist than theists — therefore if atheists can speculate that ‘God does not exist’ is reasonable, then theists can speculate that God does exist
Therefore Paley’s argument is a reasonable claim that God exists
Value for religious faith - simplicity in Paley’s argument in providing a basis for belief
The simplicity of Paley’s argument could provide a basis for belief
Belief in God does not depend just on the Design Argument (others like Cosmological argument are also sufficient)
Value for religious faith - H.H. Price
‘Belief in’ and ‘belief that’
Paley’s argument provides evidence for belief that God exists and it also comments on the wonderful design of the universe, suggesting that this supports belief in God
Hume’s ‘dialogues concerning natural religion’ quote that opposes Paley’s design argument
“this world, for all he knows, is very faulty and imperfect compared to a superior standard; and was only the first rude essay of some infant deity who afterwards abandoned it.”
