Other Section Review Part 2

Question 1

Meiosis I and II

Answer 1

REVIEW UNDER LAB EXAM 2!!

Meiosis I: parent cell is diploid(2n) and contains a homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Meiosis II: daughter cells are haploid (n) and contain just one homolog

Question 2

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Answer 2

Separation of sister chromatids in mitosis(diploid) vs homologous chromosomes in Meiosis I(haploid)

Mitosis ends with diploid daughter cells(2) while meiosis ends with haploid daughter cells(4)

Mitosis has one cell division while meiosis has two

Mitosis has the same number of chromosomes in daughter cells compared to parent cell, while in meiosis the daughter cells have half the chromosomes to their parent cells

o Mitosis does not include synapsis while meiosis does

Question 3

Roles of Mitosis vs Meiosis

Answer 3

Mitosis plays role in growth, wound healing, and asexual reproduction in some eukaryotes

Meiosis plays a role in halving chromosome number in cells that produce gametes

Question 4

Four major types of macromolecules

Answer 4

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

Question 5

carbohydrates

Answer 5

macromolecule

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

monosaccharides (simple sugars) are their monomers, like 5-carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose and 3 carbon glyceraldehyde

polysaccharides vary in formation, can store chemcial energy in plant cells (starch), provide structural support (as chitin), ex/ peptidoglycan

Question 6

proteins

Answer 6

monomer = amino acid

amino acids joined by peptide bonds, form by dehydration synthesis

functions in enxymes, transport, support, motion, regulation

central carbon with hydrogen attached

has amino group, carboxyl group, and eletrically charged side chain

Question 7

lipids

Answer 7

molecules that are insoluble in water
o Mostly hdyrocarbons (C, H, rarely O)
o Monomer = fatty acid
o Polymer = lipid
o Fats and oils are common lipids

Function - Fats and oils efficiently store energy(more energy stored per gram than carbohydrates), phospohlipids form membranes, steroids are signaling molecule

Question 8

nucleic acids

Answer 8

monomer = nucleotide (contains CHONP)

5 carbon sugar (ribose with extra O, or deoxyribose) with attached nitrgenous base and phosphate

involved in production of DNA and RNA sequences, regulate gene expression (preproduction of proteins as well)

nucleotide polymers = nucleic acids

Question 9

hydrophobic

Answer 9

water fearing (non polar covalent bonds)

Question 10

hydrophilic

Answer 10

water loving, (polar or ionic bonds, charge)

Question 11

Hydrophobic vs Hydrophilic macrmolecules

Answer 11

carbohydrates and nucleic acids are hydrophilic, lipids are hydrophobic, and proteins can be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic (based on specific amino acids in their structure)

Question 12

Photosynthesis

Answer 12

1) capture energy from light: Electron Is struck with photons of light and can become excited; note that not every time it is grabbed is successful; When an electron is successfully captured, we use resonance energy transfer

2) Make ATP and reduce NADP+: light dependent stage; Note the electrons may or may not actually be going somewhere, but the energy is definitely being moved one way or another

Question 13

Calvin Cycle

Answer 13

creates long chains of carbohydrates

fix carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere into organic compounds, such as sugars, that can be used by the plant as a source of energy and building materials

Question 14

Citric acid cycle

Answer 14

What goes in: Acetyl Co-A, 3 NAD+, FAD
What comes out: 3 NADH, FADH_2, 2 waste CO_2, ATP

strips electrons off slowly for high ATP payoff, efficiently collecting energy

acetyl COA and 4 carbon sugar creates a 6 carbon sugar to release carbon dioxide and collect energy; recycles back to 4 carbon sugar to begin again

Question 15

Electron transport chain

Answer 15

put the electrons to use!!
 IMPORTANT STEPS
 Big ATP payoff
 H^+ gradient
 ATP Synthesis

o Energy of electron is used number of times to pump protons out of mito matrix into the intermembrane space (concentration gradient created)

o High concentration of protons in intermembrane space from matrix…..
 Hydrogen are pumped through here into the intermembrane space, with energy from some electrons
* Harvesting many in order for hydrogen help form ATP

oxygen final proton acceptor to create water

Question 16

Purpose of photosynthesis

Answer 16

plants and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.

The purpose of photosynthesis is to produce organic molecules that can be used by the organism as an energy source

Question 17

Purpose of Calvin cycle

Answer 17

light-independent reactions, is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the chloroplasts of plants during photosynthesis. The purpose of the Calvin cycle is to use the energy stored in ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose

Question 18

Purpose of Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle

Answer 18

series of biochemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.

The purpose of the citric acid cycle is to generate high-energy molecules like NADH and FADH2 that can be used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP

Question 19

Purpose of electron transport chain

Answer 19

series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells

The purpose of the electron transport chain is to generate ATP by transferring electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen through a series of redox reactions

Question 20

Similarities of photosynthesis, krebs/citric cycle, calvin cycle, and electron transport chain

Answer 20

The similarities between these three processes are that they all involve the transfer of energy through a series of biochemical reactions, and they all require the use of enzymes and cofactors to carry out these reactions

Question 21

Differences of location of cellular proccesing ATP production

Answer 21

chloroplasts for photosynthesis and mitochondria for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

Question 22

Different energy sources of cellular processing ATP production

Answer 22

light for photosynthesis and glucose for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

Question 23

different products in ATP production processes

Answer 23

glucose for photosynthesis and ATP for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

Question 24

Light dependent Stage in Photosynthesis

Answer 24

occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts

purpose of the light reactions is to use light energy to generate ATP and NADPH that can be used in the Calvin cycle.

Question 25

Light independent/dark stage in Photosynthesis

Answer 25

occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts. The purpose of the dark reactions is to use the energy stored in ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose through the Calvin cycle

Question 26

Four major tissue types

Answer 26

epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue

Question 27

epithelial tissue

Answer 27

covers surface of organs; Epithelial tissue covers and lines surfaces in the body and is involved in absorption, secretion, and protection.

simple or stratified (one layer or multiple layers, depends on shape of cell)

example: stomach lining, outermost layer of skin (prevents water loss and some from sun rays)

Question 28

connective tissue

Answer 28

prominent extracellular matrix; Connective tissue provides structural support and connects different tissues and organs in the body.

CT proper: loose (lots of ground substance, held together loosely from elastin, less collagen) and dense (less group substance, tightly packed collagen for rigidity, less elastin)

Special CT: unique functionality, makes up bone cartilage and blood from specialized cells

Question 29

nervous tissue

Answer 29

Communication and coordination of activity

Central item called Soma: responsible for processing info from dendrites
* Has multiple dendrites branching off
o Dendrites: receive information, have receptors

• Axon: longer, extended branch from soma; conducts electrical/electrochemical signal to other parts of the body

Question 30

muscle tissue

Answer 30

provides movement and contraction

skeletal: moves body, multi-nucleated fibers, voluntary

cardiac: smaller, interconnected cells, involuntary

smooth: visceral muscle, internal organs, involuntary

Question 31

Similarities and differences of the four major tissue types

Answer 31

The main similarities between these tissue types are that they are all composed of cells and extracellular matrix, and they all have specific functions in the body.

The main differences between these tissue types are their structure, function, and location in the body. For example, epithelial tissue is often found on the surfaces of the body, whereas connective tissue is found in between and around other tissues and organs. Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, while muscle tissue is found in muscles throughout the body.

Question 32

Transcription

Answer 32

process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is copied into RNA

This process occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and uses it as a template to synthesize a complementary RNA molecule

Question 33

Translation

Answer 33

the information in RNA is used to synthesize a protein

This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, specifically in ribosomes

During translation, the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is read by ribosomes, which assemble amino acids into a protein chain based on the instructions provided by the mRNA

Question 34

Similarities of Transcription and Translation

Answer 34

both involve the processing of genetic information, and they both require the use of nucleic acids and enzymes

Additionally, both processes are essential for the synthesis of proteins in the cell

Question 35

Differences of Transcription vs. Translation

Answer 35

Location (nucleus in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes VS cytoplasm/specifically with ribosomes)

nucleic acid involved (RNA VS DNA)

end product (RNA VS protein)

Question 36

Dehydration

Answer 36

involves the removal of a water molecule from two molecules, resulting in the formation of a new bond between them

Question 37

Hydrolysis

Answer 37

involves the addition of a water molecule to break a bond between two molecules

Question 38

Importance of hydrolysis and dehydration

Answer 38

important in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, as well as in DNA synthesis and other cellular processes.

Question 39

oxidation

Answer 39

loss of electrons

Question 40

reduction

Answer 40

gain of electrons

Question 41

oxidation and reduction

Answer 41

redox reactions, are fundamental processes in biological systems that involve the transfer of electrons between molecules

play important roles in cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic processes. In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to produce energy in the form of ATP, while in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced to produce glucose

Redox reactions are also involved in the detoxification of harmful substances in the body, such as the conversion of alcohol to acetaldehyde in the liver.

Question 42

1st Law of thermodynamics

Answer 42

law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another

This means that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant, and that energy can be converted between different forms, such as heat, work, or electrical energy.

Question 43

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Answer 43

the total entropy, or disorder, of a closed system always increases over time. This means that energy tends to flow from hot to cold regions, and that it becomes less available to do useful work as it is converted from one form to another.

This law also implies that all natural processes tend to become more disordered over time, and that some energy is always lost as heat in any energy transformation

Question 44

Negative Feedback

Answer 44

regulatory mechanism in which the output of a system inhibits or opposes the original stimulus that produced it; In biological systems, negative feedback can help to maintain homeostasis by keeping a particular variable within a certain range

For example, the release of insulin in response to high blood sugar levels is an example of negative feedback.

Question 45

Enzyme regulation

Answer 45

refers to the mechanisms by which the activity of enzymes is controlled; Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions in the body (helps reaction occur in more efficient manner)

Question 46

Competitive inhibition

Answer 46

type of enzyme regulation where a molecule binds to the active site of an enzyme, preventing the binding of the substrate

Question 47

Noncompetitive/allosteric modulation

Answer 47

type of enzyme regulation where a molecule binds to a site on the enzyme, called the allosteric site, causing a conformational change that affects the enzyme’s activity

Noncompetitive modulation can either activate or inhibit the enzyme’s activity. This type of modulation is often used for fine-tuning metabolic pathways and regulating enzyme activity