Other Section Review Part 2 Flashcards
Meiosis I and II
REVIEW UNDER LAB EXAM 2!!
Meiosis I: parent cell is diploid(2n) and contains a homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II: daughter cells are haploid (n) and contain just one homolog
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Separation of sister chromatids in mitosis(diploid) vs homologous chromosomes in Meiosis I(haploid)
Mitosis ends with diploid daughter cells(2) while meiosis ends with haploid daughter cells(4)
Mitosis has one cell division while meiosis has two
Mitosis has the same number of chromosomes in daughter cells compared to parent cell, while in meiosis the daughter cells have half the chromosomes to their parent cells
o Mitosis does not include synapsis while meiosis does
Roles of Mitosis vs Meiosis
Mitosis plays role in growth, wound healing, and asexual reproduction in some eukaryotes
Meiosis plays a role in halving chromosome number in cells that produce gametes
Four major types of macromolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
carbohydrates
macromolecule
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
monosaccharides (simple sugars) are their monomers, like 5-carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose and 3 carbon glyceraldehyde
polysaccharides vary in formation, can store chemcial energy in plant cells (starch), provide structural support (as chitin), ex/ peptidoglycan
proteins
monomer = amino acid
amino acids joined by peptide bonds, form by dehydration synthesis
functions in enxymes, transport, support, motion, regulation
central carbon with hydrogen attached
has amino group, carboxyl group, and eletrically charged side chain
lipids
molecules that are insoluble in water
o Mostly hdyrocarbons (C, H, rarely O)
o Monomer = fatty acid
o Polymer = lipid
o Fats and oils are common lipids
Function - Fats and oils efficiently store energy(more energy stored per gram than carbohydrates), phospohlipids form membranes, steroids are signaling molecule
nucleic acids
monomer = nucleotide (contains CHONP)
5 carbon sugar (ribose with extra O, or deoxyribose) with attached nitrgenous base and phosphate
involved in production of DNA and RNA sequences, regulate gene expression (preproduction of proteins as well)
nucleotide polymers = nucleic acids
hydrophobic
water fearing (non polar covalent bonds)
hydrophilic
water loving, (polar or ionic bonds, charge)
Hydrophobic vs Hydrophilic macrmolecules
carbohydrates and nucleic acids are hydrophilic, lipids are hydrophobic, and proteins can be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic (based on specific amino acids in their structure)
Photosynthesis
1) capture energy from light: Electron Is struck with photons of light and can become excited; note that not every time it is grabbed is successful; When an electron is successfully captured, we use resonance energy transfer
2) Make ATP and reduce NADP+: light dependent stage; Note the electrons may or may not actually be going somewhere, but the energy is definitely being moved one way or another
Calvin Cycle
creates long chains of carbohydrates
fix carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere into organic compounds, such as sugars, that can be used by the plant as a source of energy and building materials
Citric acid cycle
What goes in: Acetyl Co-A, 3 NAD+, FAD
What comes out: 3 NADH, FADH_2, 2 waste CO_2, ATP
strips electrons off slowly for high ATP payoff, efficiently collecting energy
acetyl COA and 4 carbon sugar creates a 6 carbon sugar to release carbon dioxide and collect energy; recycles back to 4 carbon sugar to begin again
Electron transport chain
put the electrons to use!!
IMPORTANT STEPS
Big ATP payoff
H^+ gradient
ATP Synthesis
o Energy of electron is used number of times to pump protons out of mito matrix into the intermembrane space (concentration gradient created)
o High concentration of protons in intermembrane space from matrix…..
Hydrogen are pumped through here into the intermembrane space, with energy from some electrons
* Harvesting many in order for hydrogen help form ATP
oxygen final proton acceptor to create water
Purpose of photosynthesis
plants and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
The purpose of photosynthesis is to produce organic molecules that can be used by the organism as an energy source
Purpose of Calvin cycle
light-independent reactions, is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the chloroplasts of plants during photosynthesis. The purpose of the Calvin cycle is to use the energy stored in ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose
Purpose of Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle
series of biochemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
The purpose of the citric acid cycle is to generate high-energy molecules like NADH and FADH2 that can be used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP
Purpose of electron transport chain
series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells
The purpose of the electron transport chain is to generate ATP by transferring electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen through a series of redox reactions
Similarities of photosynthesis, krebs/citric cycle, calvin cycle, and electron transport chain
The similarities between these three processes are that they all involve the transfer of energy through a series of biochemical reactions, and they all require the use of enzymes and cofactors to carry out these reactions
Differences of location of cellular proccesing ATP production
chloroplasts for photosynthesis and mitochondria for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
Different energy sources of cellular processing ATP production
light for photosynthesis and glucose for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
different products in ATP production processes
glucose for photosynthesis and ATP for the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
Light dependent Stage in Photosynthesis
occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts
purpose of the light reactions is to use light energy to generate ATP and NADPH that can be used in the Calvin cycle.
Light independent/dark stage in Photosynthesis
occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts. The purpose of the dark reactions is to use the energy stored in ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose through the Calvin cycle
Four major tissue types
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue
epithelial tissue
covers surface of organs; Epithelial tissue covers and lines surfaces in the body and is involved in absorption, secretion, and protection.
simple or stratified (one layer or multiple layers, depends on shape of cell)
example: stomach lining, outermost layer of skin (prevents water loss and some from sun rays)
connective tissue
prominent extracellular matrix; Connective tissue provides structural support and connects different tissues and organs in the body.
CT proper: loose (lots of ground substance, held together loosely from elastin, less collagen) and dense (less group substance, tightly packed collagen for rigidity, less elastin)
Special CT: unique functionality, makes up bone cartilage and blood from specialized cells
nervous tissue
Communication and coordination of activity
Central item called Soma: responsible for processing info from dendrites
* Has multiple dendrites branching off
o Dendrites: receive information, have receptors
- Axon: longer, extended branch from soma; conducts electrical/electrochemical signal to other parts of the body
muscle tissue
provides movement and contraction
skeletal: moves body, multi-nucleated fibers, voluntary
cardiac: smaller, interconnected cells, involuntary
smooth: visceral muscle, internal organs, involuntary
Similarities and differences of the four major tissue types
The main similarities between these tissue types are that they are all composed of cells and extracellular matrix, and they all have specific functions in the body.
The main differences between these tissue types are their structure, function, and location in the body. For example, epithelial tissue is often found on the surfaces of the body, whereas connective tissue is found in between and around other tissues and organs. Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, while muscle tissue is found in muscles throughout the body.
Transcription
process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is copied into RNA
This process occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and uses it as a template to synthesize a complementary RNA molecule
Translation
the information in RNA is used to synthesize a protein
This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, specifically in ribosomes
During translation, the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is read by ribosomes, which assemble amino acids into a protein chain based on the instructions provided by the mRNA
Similarities of Transcription and Translation
both involve the processing of genetic information, and they both require the use of nucleic acids and enzymes
Additionally, both processes are essential for the synthesis of proteins in the cell
Differences of Transcription vs. Translation
Location (nucleus in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes VS cytoplasm/specifically with ribosomes)
nucleic acid involved (RNA VS DNA)
end product (RNA VS protein)
Dehydration
involves the removal of a water molecule from two molecules, resulting in the formation of a new bond between them
Hydrolysis
involves the addition of a water molecule to break a bond between two molecules
Importance of hydrolysis and dehydration
important in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, as well as in DNA synthesis and other cellular processes.
oxidation
loss of electrons
reduction
gain of electrons
oxidation and reduction
redox reactions, are fundamental processes in biological systems that involve the transfer of electrons between molecules
play important roles in cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic processes. In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to produce energy in the form of ATP, while in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced to produce glucose
Redox reactions are also involved in the detoxification of harmful substances in the body, such as the conversion of alcohol to acetaldehyde in the liver.
1st Law of thermodynamics
law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another
This means that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant, and that energy can be converted between different forms, such as heat, work, or electrical energy.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
the total entropy, or disorder, of a closed system always increases over time. This means that energy tends to flow from hot to cold regions, and that it becomes less available to do useful work as it is converted from one form to another.
This law also implies that all natural processes tend to become more disordered over time, and that some energy is always lost as heat in any energy transformation
Negative Feedback
regulatory mechanism in which the output of a system inhibits or opposes the original stimulus that produced it; In biological systems, negative feedback can help to maintain homeostasis by keeping a particular variable within a certain range
For example, the release of insulin in response to high blood sugar levels is an example of negative feedback.
Enzyme regulation
refers to the mechanisms by which the activity of enzymes is controlled; Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions in the body (helps reaction occur in more efficient manner)
Competitive inhibition
type of enzyme regulation where a molecule binds to the active site of an enzyme, preventing the binding of the substrate
Noncompetitive/allosteric modulation
type of enzyme regulation where a molecule binds to a site on the enzyme, called the allosteric site, causing a conformational change that affects the enzyme’s activity
Noncompetitive modulation can either activate or inhibit the enzyme’s activity. This type of modulation is often used for fine-tuning metabolic pathways and regulating enzyme activity
