Other

Question 1

Acetyl-CoA

Answer 1

Acetyl-CoA is a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production.

Question 2

Cellular respiration

Answer 2

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert nutrients, primarily glucose, into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to fuel cellular activities.

Question 3

Enzyme

Answer 3

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in our bodies. They act like a key to a lock, binding to specific molecules, called substrates, to carry out their jobs. Enzymes help with various functions, such as breaking down food in digestion or building DNA in cells. Without enzymes, these reactions would be too slow to support life.

Question 4

Interleukin 8 (IL 8)

Answer 4

Interleukin 8 (IL-8) is a type of protein in our bodies called a cytokine. It plays a crucial role in the immune system’s response to inflammation and infection. IL-8 is produced by various cells, including immune cells and tissue cells, in response to an inflammatory signal. It attracts neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to the site of inflammation to help fight against invading pathogens. However, if produced excessively, IL-8 can contribute to chronic inflammation and diseases, including some types of cancer.

Question 5

Kinase

Answer 5

Kinase is a type of enzyme (a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body) that adds chemicals called phosphates to other molecules, such as sugars or proteins. This may cause other molecules in the cell to become either active or inactive. Kinases are a part of many cell processes.

Question 6

Mast cells

Answer 6

Mast cells are a type of white blood cell residing in various tissues, predominantly in connective tissues and near blood vessels and nerves, playing a central role in immune responses. They contain granules rich in histamine and heparin and are involved in the inflammatory response, where they release these and other mediators in response to pathogens and allergens. While they are crucial in defending against pathogens, their activation can also contribute to allergic reactions and chronic inflammatory diseases.throughout the body.

Question 7

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Answer 7

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen that are generated as by-products of various metabolic processes, primarily during cellular respiration in the mitochondria. ROS include free radicals, such as superoxide anion (O2•-), hydroxyl radical (•OH), and non-radical molecules like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). At low to moderate levels, ROS play essential roles in cellular signaling, immune function, and other physiological processes. However, when ROS levels become too high, they can cause damage to cellular components, such as proteins, lipids, and DNA. This damage is known as oxidative stress.

Question 8

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

Answer 8

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are proteins that play a key role in the immune system. They’re found on the surface of certain cells, like immune cells, and help these cells recognize and respond to invading pathogens, like bacteria and viruses. When a TLR identifies the molecular patterns of a pathogen, it triggers an immune response. This includes the release of chemicals that promote inflammation and attract additional immune cells to the site of infection.

Question 9

Histamine

Answer 9

Histamine is a chemical messenger produced by mast cells that mediates:-inflammatory reactions-allergic reations-gastric acid secretion-limited neurotransmitter action in the brain

Question 10

Angiogenesis

Answer 10

Angiogenesis is the biological process by which new blood vessels form from pre-existing ones. This process is essential for growth, development, and wound healing, but it is also involved in the progression of diseases like cancer, where tumors stimulate the formation of new blood vessels to supply them with nutrients and oxygen. Various signaling molecules, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), are crucial for the regulation of angiogenesis, and therapies that inhibit angiogenesis are used in treating certain types of cancer and other conditions.

Question 11

TLR-2

Answer 11

TLR-2 (Toll-like receptor 2) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system as a part of the Toll-like receptor family. It is primarily found on the surface of immune cells like macrophages and dendritic cells, where it recognizes specific microbial components, such as lipoproteins and peptidoglycans from bacteria. Activation of TLR-2 triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in the release of inflammatory cytokines and type I interferons, helping to initiate an immune response against the invading pathogens.

Question 12

glutathione

Answer 12

Glutathione is a powerful antioxidant produced in cells, composed of three amino acids—glutamine, cysteine, and glycine—that helps reduce oxidative stress and plays a key role in cellular detoxification processes.

Question 13

neuropeptide

Answer 13

A neuropeptide is a small protein-like molecule used by neurons (nerve cells) to communicate with each other. These molecules are similar to neurotransmitters, but are typically longer and have more complex structures. Neuropeptides are involved in a wide range of brain functions, such as pain perception, reward, food intake, metabolism, reproduction, social behaviors, learning, and memory. They are synthesized and released by neurons and act by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, often with longer-lasting effects than neurotransmitters. Examples of neuropeptides include endorphins, which are involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure, and substance P, involved in the pain response.

Question 14

SP+ nerves

Answer 14

“SP+ nerves” typically refers to nerves that contain Substance P, a neuropeptide. Substance P is involved in the transmission of pain and other sensory messages to the brain and is found in specific neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems. These SP+ neurons play a crucial role in pain perception and the inflammatory response. Substance P is often studied in the context of pain, itch, and their regulation, and it can also influence other processes like mood, anxiety, nausea, and the stress response.

Question 15

Exudation

Answer 15

When the walls of inflammatory blood cells become permeable and fluids, proteins, and inflammatory cells rush to the tissues to heal the injury

Question 16

Macrophage

Answer 16

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing and digesting cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes, cancer cells, and anything else that does not have the types of proteins specific to healthy body cells on its surface, in a process known as phagocytosis. They are found in virtually all tissues and contribute to both innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific) immune responses. Macrophages are derived from monocytes, a type of white blood cell that circulates in the bloodstream. Once monocytes migrate into tissues, they differentiate into macrophages. These cells are versatile and can change their function in response to signals from the environment, playing roles in wound healing, immune regulation, and the pathogenesis of various diseases through their ability to produce a wide range of chemicals, including enzymes, complement proteins, and cytokines.

Question 17

Innate immune system

Answer 17

Our first defense against foreign threats - includes chemical barriers such as secretions like spit or physical barriers like hair/lashes. Innate immune cells include macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, basophils, and mast cells

Question 18

Adaptive immune system

Answer 18

More complex and slower to react that the innate immune system, but also more targeted. Here, lymphocytes act directly on specific antigens

Question 19

Which type of white blood cells predominate chronic inflammation?

Answer 19

Macrophages and lymphocytes

Question 20

Endothelial cells

Answer 20

Endothelial cells are specialized cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. They are a key component of the endothelium, a thin layer that lines the heart and blood vessels. Endothelial cells play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including the regulation of blood flow and blood pressure, blood clotting, and the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). They also have important functions in mediating inflammation and the immune response, as they can control the passage of materials and the transit of white blood cells into and out of the bloodstream. Additionally, endothelial cells help maintain vascular homeostasis by releasing substances that influence vessel dilation and constriction, as well as enzymes and growth factors that regulate blood vessel health and growth.

Question 21

C-reactive protein

Answer 21

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance produced by the liver in response to inflammation. Its levels in the blood increase in response to acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, making it a useful marker for detecting inflammation and monitoring the severity of disease or the effectiveness of treatments.