Nutrition, Digestion, Microbiome

Question 1

Acetyl-CoA

Answer 1

Acetyl-CoA is a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production.

Question 2

Adipocyte

Answer 2

An adipocyte is a cell specialized for the storage of fat, primarily found in connective tissue.

Question 3

Adiponectin

Answer 3

Adiponectin is a hormone that’s produced and secreted by fat cells, or adipocytes. It plays a crucial role in regulating glucose levels and breaking down fatty acids in the body. Higher levels of adiponectin are linked to a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes and heart disease. It’s also involved in controlling inflammation. Unlike many hormones, adiponectin levels are typically lower in people with more body fat, which is part of why obesity can lead to health problems.

Question 4

Amino Acids

Answer 4

Organic compounds that combine to form proteins, playing critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.

Question 5

Carbohydrates

Answer 5

Sugars, starches, and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables, and milk products, serving as a major source of energy for the body.

Question 6

Cellular respiration

Answer 6

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert nutrients, primarily glucose, into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to fuel cellular activities.

Question 7

Diamine oxidase

Answer 7

Diamine oxidase (DAO) is an enzyme that is involved in the breakdown and metabolism of histamine, a molecule that plays roles in the immune system, digestive system, and the central nervous system. The enzyme helps in the catabolism of histamine and other amines in the gut, thereby regulating the levels of histamine in the body. Adequate levels of DAO are necessary to maintain histamine balance and prevent symptoms of histamine intolerance, which can include headaches, skin irritation, and digestive issues.

Question 8

Enteroendocrine cells

Answer 8

Enteroendocrine cells are responsible for the regulation of appetite, digestion, intestinal absorption, and motility.

Question 9

Enzyme

Answer 9

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in our bodies. They act like a key to a lock, binding to specific molecules, called substrates, to carry out their jobs. Enzymes help with various functions, such as breaking down food in digestion or building DNA in cells. Without enzymes, these reactions would be too slow to support life.

Question 10

factors that influence enzyme secretion

Answer 10

Localization: Many enzymes are confined to specific cells or compartments. For example, digestive enzymes like lipases and proteases are secreted into the digestive tract where they encounter their substrates (fats and proteins).Regulation: Enzyme activity is tightly controlled by various mechanisms. This includes factors like pH level, the presence of co-factors or inhibitors, and the concentration of substrate. For instance, pepsin, a digestive enzyme in the stomach, is only active in acidic conditions.Transportation and Secretion: Enzymes are often synthesized in one location and then transported or secreted to the site of action. For example, the pancreas produces digestive enzymes and releases them into the small intestine.Signal Response: Enzymatic activity can be triggered by specific signals. For example, the presence of food in the stomach triggers the release of digestive enzymes.

Question 11

Fats

Answer 11

Nutrients that provide energy, support cell growth, and protect organs; they are divided into saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats.

Question 12

glutathione

Answer 12

Glutathione is a powerful antioxidant produced in cells, composed of three amino acids—glutamine, cysteine, and glycine—that helps reduce oxidative stress and plays a key role in cellular detoxification processes.

Question 13

Gut peptides

Answer 13

Gut peptides, also known as gastrointestinal peptides, are a group of hormones secreted by cells in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. They play crucial roles in regulating a variety of functions including digestion, absorption of nutrients, gut motility, and appetite. Some well-known gut peptides include ghrelin, which stimulates appetite, and cholecystokinin (CCK), which promotes digestion and suppresses hunger.

Question 14

Histamine

Answer 14

Histamine is a chemical messenger produced by mast cells that mediates:-inflammatory reactions-allergic reations-gastric acid secretion-limited neurotransmitter action in the brain

Question 15

humoral signals

Answer 15

Humoral signals refer to the transmission of information in the body through substances in the blood or other bodily fluids. These substances, often hormones or other chemical messengers, are secreted by glands or tissues and travel through the bloodstream to target organs or cells, where they exert specific effects. This type of signaling is crucial for coordinating complex bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth, and immune responses.

Question 16

Immunoglobulin A (IgA)

Answer 16

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is an antibody blood protein that’s part of your immune system. It’s found in mucous membranes, mainly in the respiratory and digestive tracts, as well as in saliva, tears, and breastmilk. It plays a critical role in mucosal immunity. It functions by binding to pathogens and toxins, preventing them from entering or infecting the cells of the host organism. IgA exists mainly in two forms: serum IgA circulating in the blood and secretory IgA (sIgA) present in secretions on mucosal surfaces.

Question 17

Kinase

Answer 17

Kinase is a type of enzyme (a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body) that adds chemicals called phosphates to other molecules, such as sugars or proteins. This may cause other molecules in the cell to become either active or inactive. Kinases are a part of many cell processes.

Question 18

Lipogenesis

Answer 18

Lipogenesis refers to the conversion of fatty acids and glycerol into fats, or a metabolic process through which acetyl-CoA is converted to triglyceride for storage in fat.

Question 19

Luminal contents

Answer 19

Luminal contents refer to food particles, enzymes, etc., present in the space inside a small intestine. The nature of luminal contents can influence various physiological processes, including the activation of digestive enzymes and the signaling pathways involved in nutrient sensing.

Question 20

Minerals

Answer 20

Inorganic elements that play key roles in bodily functions, such as calcium, potassium, and iron.

Question 21

Monounsaturated fatty acid

Answer 21

-

Question 22

Proteins

Answer 22

Molecules made up of amino acids that are essential for building and repairing body tissues, enzymes, and hormones.

Question 23

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

Answer 23

-

Question 24

Saturated Fats

Answer 24

Types of fat found in animal products and processed foods that can raise cholesterol levels and increase the risk of heart disease.

Question 25

Unsaturated Fats

Answer 25

Healthy fats found in plants and fish that can lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease.

Question 26

Vitamins

Answer 26

Organic compounds required in small amounts for growth, reproduction, and maintenance of health, including vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K.

Question 27

Omega-3 fatty acid

Answer 27

-

Question 28

How does overeating lead to chronic low-grade inflammation in adipose tissue?

Answer 28

Overeating leads to the expansion of adipose tissue, which can cause hypoxia (low oxygen levels) due to insufficient blood supply to the enlarged fat cells. This condition triggers an inflammatory response as the body attempts to adapt to the stress, leading to the recruitment of immune cells into the adipose tissue. These immune cells, particularly macrophages, release pro-inflammatory cytokines, creating a state of chronic low-grade inflammation. Additionally, the excess nutrients can induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and oxidative stress within adipocytes, further exacerbating the inflammatory response. This chronic inflammation plays a significant role in the development of insulin resistance, contributing to metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.