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organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function.

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2
Q

What is an organ?

A

An organ is a group of tissues working together for a specific function.

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3
Q

Why is the digestive system necessary?

A

The digestive system is necessary as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (the three main food molecules) are too large to be absorbed into the blood stream, so they need to be digested.

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4
Q

What is the function of the mouth? What enzymes does it contain?

A

mouth:

  • food chewed into smaller pieces
  • amylase
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5
Q

What is the function of the oesophagus?

A

oesophagus:

- muscles contact to push the food along

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6
Q

What is the function of the stomach? What enzymes does it contain?

A

stomach:

  • hydrochloric acid is optimum pH for enzymes, making them more efficient
  • kills bacteria
  • food spends several hours here
  • churning turns food into fluid for a larger surface area for enzymes
  • protease in gastric juice
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7
Q

What is the function of the liver?

A

liver:

- releases bile, which neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fats to increase surface area for lipase

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8
Q

What is the function of the pancreas? What enzymes does it contain?

A

pancreas:

  • pancreatic juice produced
  • contains amylase, protease and lipase
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9
Q

What is the function of the small intestine? What enzymes does it contain?

A

small intestine:

  • bile from liver and pancreatic juice released
  • walls of small intestine release amylase, protease and lipase
  • small food molecules absorbed into bloodstream via diffusion and active transport
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10
Q

What is the function of the large intestine?

A

large intestine:

- water is absorbed

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11
Q

What is the function of the rectum?

A

rectum:

- faeces is stored

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12
Q

What are the two ways glucose is used from digestion?

A

In the body, glucose is used in respiration and stored as glycogen.

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13
Q

What are the products from digestion used for?

A

The products from digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins within the body.

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14
Q

What are enzymes? How do they work?

A

Enzymes are biological catalysts, which speed up chemical reactions without being used up. They are large proteins. Their active site is unique and complimentary to their substrate. When they connect, bonds between the substrate are broken.

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15
Q

What is the function of amylase?

A

Amylase is a carbohydrase and breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars.

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16
Q

What is the function of protease?

A

Protease breaks down proteins into amino acids.

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17
Q

What is the function of lipase?

A

Lipase breaks down lipids (fats) into glycerol and fatty acids. A lipid is one molecule of glycerol attached to three strands of fatty acids.

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18
Q

What is the function of bile?

A

Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It speeds up the digestion of lipids but IS NOT an enzyme. It emulsifies lipids, increasing the surface area for lipids to work on. It is also a alkaline so it neutralises hydrochloric acid.

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19
Q

What is the effect of temperature on enzymes?

A

As temperature increases, the enzyme activity increases as the enzyme and substrate are moving faster, so there are more collisions per second. At a certain temperature, it reaches the optimum temperature, which is the fastest possible reaction rate. When it is passed, it rapidly goes to 0 as the enzyme changes shape and denatures, so they don’t fit each other.

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20
Q

What is the effect of pH on enzymes?

A

There is an optimum pH for enzymes, but if the pH is slightly more or less, the enzyme will denature.

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21
Q

What are the adaptations of the small intestine?

A

adaptations of small intestine:

  • 5 metres long, so large surface area for more absorption of molecules
  • covered with millions of villi, increases surface area
  • villi have microvilli, again increase surface area
  • villi have very good blood supply, so goes straight to bloodstream
  • villi have thin membrane for short diffusion path
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22
Q

What is the function of the vena cava?

A

The vena cava brings deoxygenated blood into the heart from the body.

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23
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary artery?

A

The pulmonary artery passes blood to the lungs.

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24
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary vein?

A

The pulmonary vein brings in oxygenated blood from the lungs.

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25
Q

What is the function of the aorta?

A

The aorta passes oxygenated blood to the body.

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26
Q

Why is the left side of the heart thicker?

A

The left side of the heart is thicker as it needs to pump blood to the entire body.

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27
Q

What is the difference between the atrium and the ventricle?

A

The atrium brings blood into the heart and the ventricle passes it out. They both contract to do so.

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28
Q

What is the function of valves in the heart?

A

The valves prevent the blood from flowing backwards.

29
Q

What is the function of the coronary arteries?

A

The coronary arteries branch out of the aorta and spread out into the heart muscle to supply it with oxygen, which is used in respiration.

30
Q

What is the pacemaker in the heart and if it stops working, what is it replaced with?

A

The pacemaker is a group of cells in the right atrium that control the resting heart rate. If this stops working, doctors can implant an electrical device that corrects irregularities. It is implanted under the skin and has a wire going to the heart.

31
Q

What is the function of the arteries and how are they adapted?

A

arteries:

  • carry a very high blood pressure from the heart to the body
  • very thick, muscular walls to allow them to withstand the high pressure of the blood
  • copes with pulses as contains elastic fibres, which stretch when surges of blood pass through and then recoil to keep the blood moving
32
Q

What is the function of the capillaries and how are they adapted?

A

capillaries:

  • when blood passes through, glucose and oxygen diffuse from blood to cells and carbon dioxide diffuses from cells to blood
  • one cell thick, so diffusion path is short
  • very close to cells, so fast diffusion
33
Q

What is the function of the veins and how are they adapted?

A

veins:

  • going back to heart
  • blood is travelling slowly, so could stop or go backwards
  • thin wall as pressure is low so wall doesn’t need to be thick
  • contains valves which stop blood from flowing backwards
  • wider hole so more blood can flow due to less pressure
34
Q

What is plasma? What does it contain?

A

plasma:

  • a liquid that transports dissolved substances around the body, carries everything in the blood
  • it transports red and white blood cells, platelets, soluble digestion products, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones, proteins, antibodies and antitoxins
35
Q

What are red blood cells? How are they adapted?

A

red blood cells:

  • carries oxygen from the lungs to body cells
  • contains red haemoglobin, which carries oxygen
  • haemoglobin + oxygen -> oxyhaemoglobin
  • no nucleus so more room for haemoglobin
  • biconcave disc shape so greater surface area so oxygen diffuses in and out rapidly
36
Q

What is the function of white blood cells? How are they adapted?

A

white blood cells:

  • part of the immune system
  • some carry out phagocytosis (change shape to engulf microorganisms)
  • some produce antibodies
  • some produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins produced by microorganisms
37
Q

What is the function of platelets?

A

platelets:

  • they are small fragments of cells
  • they help the blood clot at a wound
  • they don’t have a nucleus
  • stops microorganisms from getting in
  • lack of platelets causes excessive bleeding and bruising
38
Q

Why do people need donated blood?

A

People need donated blood to replace blood loss during an injury, to be given platelets to help with clotting and proteins extracted from it can be useful in antibodies.

39
Q

What are the problems with donating blood?

A

problems with donating blood:

  • must be same blood type as patients or immune system will reject it
  • diseases can be transmitted via blood (in the UK, blood is screened for infection so low risk)
40
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

coronary heart disease:

  • layers of fatty material build inside the coronary arteries, causing coronary artery to narrow, reducing blood flow
  • results in a lack of oxygen for the heart, which can cause a heart attack
41
Q

What are the two treatments for coronary heart disease?

A

coronary heart disease treatments:

  • statins reduce blood cholesterol levels, which slows the rate at which fatty materials build up in arteries. they reduce risk, but have unwanted side effects (liver problems)
  • stents are tubes which are inserted into the coronary artery to keep it open. blood can flow normally, but won’t prevent other regions from closing in
42
Q

What is faulty heart valves?

A

faulty heart valves:

  • valves don’t fully open so heart has to pump harder
  • can cause the heart to enlarge
  • valves are leaky (blood flows both ways), so patient feels weak and tired
43
Q

What are the two treatments for faulty heart valves?

A

faulty heart valves treatments:

  • replace with mechanical valve, which lasts a lifetime but increases the risk of blood clots
  • replace with animal valves, which need to be replaced but no drugs are needed
44
Q

What is heart failure?

A

heart failure:

- heart can’t pump enough blood around the body

45
Q

What are the two treatments for heart failure?

A

heart failure treatments:

  • donate heart or lungs, but not enough hearts or lungs for every patient and they must take drugs to stop rejection
  • artificial heart is a temporary solution but increased risk of blood clots and doesn’t work as well
46
Q

Why does the trachea contain rings of cartilage?

A

The trachea contains rings of cartilage to prevent collapse.

47
Q

Describe the path that air travels through the lungs.

A

Air passes through the trachea and splits into two smaller tubes called bronchi. The bronchi divide into bronchioles, which end in small sacs called alveoli. This is where gas exchange occurs.

48
Q

Describe the gas exchange that occurs in the alveoli.

A

The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries to allow for quicker exchange. Oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the capillaries and is taken to body cells, where oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries into the alveoli and is breathed out the body.

49
Q

How is cancer caused?

A

Cancer is caused by changes that take place in genes which lead to uncontrolled growth and division by mitosis, which is a tumour.

50
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

A benign tumour is contained in one area, usually within a membrane. They don’t invade other areas of the body. They usually aren’t dangerous or cancerous.

51
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

A malignant tumour invades neighbouring tissues and spread to other parts of the body in the blood, where they form secondary tumours. They are dangerous or cancerous.

52
Q

What are the risk factors for cancer?

A

risk factors for cancer:

  • genetics
  • lifestyle (smoking, ultraviolet light, alcohol)
  • obesity
  • viral infection (sharing needles, sex)
  • radon (radioactive gas that damages DNA)
53
Q

What is the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases?

A

Communicable diseases are spreadable via pathogens. Non-communicable diseases can’t be spread.

54
Q

What are the risk factors for each disease? (cardiovascular, lung, cancer, pregnancy, liver, brain, type 2 diabetes)

A

risk factors for disease:
- cardiovascular disease - high fat, low vegetables, low cholesterol, more salt, more smoking, less exercise

  • lung disease and cancer - smoking (carcinogens in cigarettes increase risk)
  • pregnancy - smoking increases risk of miscarriage and premature birth, alcohol increases risk of fetal alcohol syndrome and learning difficulties
  • liver and brain - drinking increases risk of liver cancer, addiction and memory loss
  • type 2 diabetes - obesity means higher risk, struggle to control blood glucose levels
55
Q

What is the function of the epidermal tissue and the waxy cuticle in the leaf?

A

The epidermal tissue protects the surface of the leaf. The upper epidermis is transparent to let light in for photosynthesis. The waxy cuticle is thin and oily, which reduces evaporation of water from the leaf.

56
Q

What is the function of the stomata and guard cells in the leaf?

A

The stomata allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen out and controls the amount of water vapour that can leave. Guard cells control when these open and close.

57
Q

What is the function of the palisade mesophyll in the leaf?

A

The palisade mesophyll is full of chloroplast, the main place where photosynthesis takes place.

58
Q

What is the function of the spongy mesophyll in the leaf?

A

The spongy mesophyll have air spaces to allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to diffuse from the stomata to palisade cells.

59
Q

What is the function of the xylem in the leaf?

A

The xylem transports water from the roots to stem and leaves, used in photosynthesis. It also transports dissolved mineral ions, including magnesium which makes chlorophyll.

60
Q

What is the function of the phloem in the leaf?

A

The phloem transports dissolved sugars produced by photosynthesis from leaves to plants. It is used immediately in respiration or stored as starch. This movement is caused translocation. Phloem are composed of tubes of elongated cells and cell sap which can move from one phloem to the next through pores.

61
Q

What is the function of the meristem tissue in the leaf?

A

The meristem tissue is at the growing tips of shoots and roots. It contains stem cells which differentiate into different types of plant tissue.

62
Q

What is transpiration?

A

Transpiration is when water is constantly evaporated from the surface of the leaf.

63
Q

Describe the transpiration stream.

A

Water vapour diffuses through the spongy mesophyll and out of the leaf through the stomata. Water then passes from the xylem into the leaf to replace lost water. Then, water is drawn into root hair cells and up the xylem.

64
Q

What conditions affect the rate of transpiration?

A

factors affecting rate of transpiration:

  • higher temperature means faster
  • drier conditions means faster
  • windy conditions means faster as wind removes water vapour
  • higher light intensity means faster as stomata open wider
65
Q

How does water levels affect the stomata?

A

When there is lots of water, guard cells go turgid so stomata opens and gases are exchanged for photosynthesis. When less water, guard cells go flaccid so water vapour won’t escape.

66
Q

How does light affect the stomata?

A

When there is more light, the guard cells swell so the stomata open so carbon dioxide can diffuse into the leaf for photosynthesis.

67
Q

How does heat affect the stomata?

A

When it is hotter, the guard cells go flaccid so the stomata closes to reduce water loss.

68
Q

Why are there more stomata on the bottom of the leaf?

A

There are more stomata on the bottom of the leaf as it is shaded and cooler so less water is evaporated.

69
Q

How should you estimate the rate of transpiration?

A

Place plant with stem partially cut off. See the rate (in cm/s) at which a bubble travels to the plant along a capillary tube.

z biology paper one (5 decks)

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