organisation Flashcards

1
Q

What is a tissue? give example

A

A group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function
muscular tissue, made up of muscle cell

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2
Q

What is an organ? give example

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a certain function
stomach, contains muscular tissue

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3
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs working together to perform a particular function

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4
Q

what is a catalyst?

A

A substance which increases the speed of a reaction without being changed or used up

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5
Q

what does the digestive system do

A

break down large food molecules into smaller ones to absorb nutrients

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6
Q

explain the lock and key model

A

enzymes have an active site with a unique shape. The substrate fits into the active site to make enzyme-substrate complex
substrate breaks down into products

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7
Q

what two conditions changes the rate of enzymes

A

Temperature and pH

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8
Q

what happens to activity of enzyme as temperature increases

A

increases rate up to a point (optimum temperature)
too high, enzymes denature and stops working

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9
Q

what happens to activity of enzyme as pH changes

A

has an optimum pH - if it becomes more acidic/alkaline, enzyme denatures

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10
Q

what do enzymes do?

A

break down big molecules into smaller ones for digestion

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11
Q

What enzyme converts starch and what does it convert them into?

A

Carbohydrase
simple sugars

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12
Q

give an example of carbohydrase and where it is made

A

amylase, salivary, glands, pancreas, small intestine

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13
Q

what converts proteins and what does it convert them into?

A

Protease
amino acids

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14
Q

where is protease made?

A

Stomach (pepsin), pancreas, small intestine

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15
Q

what converts lipids and what does it convert them into?

A

Lipase
one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids

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16
Q

where is lipase made?

A

Pancreas, small intestine

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17
Q

what does small intestine and large intestine do

A

small
- produces the 3 enzymes
- absorbs food molecules from digestion into blood

large
- absorbs water from food

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18
Q

how is small intestine adapted to absorb products of digestion

A
  • very long, 5m in humans: large SA

covered in villi to speed diffusion:
- large SA
- microvilli surround villi: even larger
- capillaries allow very good blood supply, bloodstream removes products rapidly
- thin membrane: shorter diffusion

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19
Q

what does the stomach do

A
  • produces pepsin to digest proteins
  • produces HCl to kill bacteria and provide optimum pH for pepsin
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20
Q

how and why does the body produce bile

A

produces in liver, stored in gall bladder, released into small intestine.
- neutralises HCl from stomach to allow enzymes in small intestine to work in less acidity
- emulsifies lipids, increasing SA to speed breakdown

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21
Q

Where does oxygen go when you breathe it in?

A

trachea - split into two bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli

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22
Q

how are we adapted for gas exchange

A

trachea - rings of cartilage to prevent collapse
breathing - brings oxygen to alveoli and takes away the co2, maintaining gradient

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23
Q

how are alveoli adapted for gas exchange and diffusion

A
  • millions in lungs: huge SA
  • thin walls: short diffusion path
  • very good blood supply: rapidly removed to maintain gradient
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24
Q

What valves do?

A

Prevent blood flowing backwards

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25
Q

describe circulation in humans

A

double circulatory system:
deoxygenated blood pumped heart to lungs
oxygenated blood pumped lungs to heart
blood gives oxygen to organs
blood returns to heart

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26
Q

what does blood flow through to get to the right atria?

A

The vena cava

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27
Q

where is vena cava on diagram

A

LEFT side: diagram reverses

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28
Q

describe blood vessels that enter and leave heart

A

DO body - heart: vena cava
DO heart - lungs: pulmonary artery
O lungs - heart: pulmonary vein
O heart - body: aorta

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29
Q

explain how blood flows to the heart on the right side

A
  • Enters right atria via vena cava
  • Atria contracts, pushing blood into ventricles
  • Ventricles contract, pushing blood into pulmonary artery
  • valves stop backflow when ventricles contract
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30
Q

explain how blood flows through the heart on the left side

A
  • Enters left atria via pulmonary vein
  • Atria contract, pushing blood into left ventricle
  • Ventricle contracts and leaves through the aorta
  • valves stop backflow when ventricle contracts
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31
Q

why isnt a heart symmetrical

A

left has thicker muscular wall than right
left pumps blood around the entire body so needs to provide greater force, whereas right pumps only to lungs

32
Q

what are coronary arteries

A

branch out of aorta and spread across the heart, to provide oxygen to muscle cells of heart for respiration for contraction

33
Q

what is a pacemaker?

A

A group of cells in the right atrium that control the heart rate

34
Q

what to do if pacemaker stops working correctly

A

artificial pacemaker - small electrical device that regulates heart rate

35
Q

Features of an artery

A
  • thick, muscular walls to withstand high pressure
  • elastic fibres which stretch and recoil as blood surges
36
Q

Features of a capillary

A
  • thin walls to shorten and speed diffusion
37
Q

Features of veins

A
  • thin wall as pressure is low
  • valves to stop blood flowing in wrong direction
38
Q

Name the four main things in blood

A

Red blood cell, white blood cell, platelets and plasma

39
Q

what does RBC do and what are some features

A

carry oxygen to organs
- contains haemoglobin, which binds with oxygen in lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin, releases oxygen when RBC travels to organs
- no nucleus to allow more room for haemoglobin
- biconcave disc to increase SA

40
Q

what does WBC do and what are some features

A

part of immune system to fight disease
- contain a nucleus, which has DNA that encodes WBC to do its know

41
Q

what does plasma do

A

liquid that carries
- soluble products of digestion from small intestine to organs
- co2 (aerobic respiration) from organs to lungs to be exhales
- urea from liver to kidneys to be excreted

42
Q

what do platelets do

A

fragments of cells that help blood to clot

43
Q

uses of donated blood

A
  • replace blood lost during injury
  • provides platelets for clotting
  • provides proteins eg antibodies
44
Q

risks of donated blood

A
  • ensure blood type is same otherwise immune system will reject it and patient could die
  • disease transmitted via blood
45
Q

what is coronary heart disease?

A

when layers of fat build up in coronary arteries, narrowing the artery.
less blood flow = less oxygen supply to heart, can cause heart attack

46
Q

What is a stent?

A

Tubes that inserted inside arteries that keep them open

47
Q

Pros and cons of a stent

A
  • blood can flow normally through artery
  • only prevents narrowing in one region, other regions may block
  • risk of blood clot near stent
48
Q

what is a statin

A

Drugs that reduce level of bad cholesterol in blood, slowing rate of fat build up

49
Q

pros and cons of statins

A
  • reduced risk of coronary heart disease
  • unwanted side effects eg liver problems
50
Q

problems of poor valves

A
  • dont fully open - heart has to pump harder, enlargens
  • leaky, causing tiredness
51
Q

solution to poor valves with pros and cons

A

mechanical valve
- lasts a lifetime
- anticlotting drugs must be taken

biological valve
- no drugs needed
- dont last long, may need replacing

52
Q

what is heart faliure

A

when heart cannot pump enough blood around body

53
Q

solution to heart failure with pros and cons

A

donated heart (and lungs)
- not enough donors for patients
- drugs needed to stop immune system rejecting heart

temporary artificial heart
- risk of clotting
- only temporary, not long term

54
Q

risk of uncontrolled mitosis

55
Q

benign vs malignant tumour

A

B: tumour contained in an area, a membrane, so do not invade other parts of body
M: cells can move into bloodstream & invade healthy tissue, forming secondary tumours, cancerous

56
Q

causes of cancer

A
  • uncontrolled mitosis (tumours)
  • genetics eg breast
  • lifestyle eg uv, smoking
  • environment eg radon gas: ionising radiation - cells damaged - uncontrolled mitosis - lung cancer
57
Q

how to find causes of disease

A

epidemiology - studying patterns of disease to determine its risk factors

causal mechanism - finding how risk factor leads to disease

58
Q

how did scientists find cause of lung cancer

A
  • scatter graph to see correlation and link between:
    number of cigs per day & risk of developing lung cancer
    years of smoking & risk of developing lung cancer
  • causal mechanism to discover that chemicals in smoke is carcogenic (damages dna - cancer)
59
Q

challenge of epidemiology and how to overcome

A

sampling - creates bias as sample may be unrepresentative of population
large, random samples taken

60
Q

risk factors of cardiovascular disease

A
  • diet: high fat increases bad cholesterol, increasing rate of fat build-up
    high salt increases blood pressure, increasing risk
  • smoking increases risk
  • exercise decreases risk
61
Q

risk factors linked to smoking

A

smoke is carcinogenic
- cardiovascular disease
- lung cancer
- lung disease eg emphysema
- miscarriage/premature if pregnant

62
Q

risk factors linked to pregnancy

A
  • smoking: miscarriage, prematurity
  • drinking: fetal alcohol syndrome, learning difficulty
63
Q

risks factors linked to alcohol

A
  • fetal alcohol syndrome if pregnant
  • liver cirrhosis and liver cancer
  • addiction and memory loss
64
Q

risks factors linked to type 2 diabetes

A
  • blindness
  • amputatuion
  • obesity causes it
65
Q

risk factors not linked to lifestyle

A
  • environment eg radon: radioactive gas, risk of cancer
66
Q

What do epidermal tissues do?

A

They are covered in a waxy cuticle, which helps to reduce water loss by evaporation

67
Q

what does the upper epidermis do?

A

It’s transparent, so that light can pass through it to the palisade layer

68
Q

what does lower epidermis do

A

covered in stomata
- allow co2 to enter, oxygen to leave
- regulates water leaving/entering

surrounded by guard cells
- swell in high light intensity, stomata opens
- closes stomate in hot conditions to reduce water loss via transpiration

69
Q

what does the palisade mesophyll layer do?

A

lots of chloroplasts - chlorophyll get lots of sunlight

70
Q

what does spongy mesophyll do

A

full of air spaces
- allow co2 to diffuse from stomata to palisade cells
- allow oxygen to diffuse from palisade cells to stomata

71
Q

what does the xylem do

A
  • transports water up plant (roots to stem and leaves) for photosynthesis
  • transports dissolved mineral ions eg magnesium for chlorophyll
72
Q

what does the phloem do

A

translocation: transports sugars from photosynthesis from leaves to rest of plant, for respiration or store as starch

73
Q

what does the meristem do

A

at shoots and roots, contains stem cells which can become any cell

74
Q

describe transpiration stream

A

evaporation from leaf surfaces
- evap occurs from cells within leaf
- vapour diffuses through spongy mesophyll
- exits via stomata
- xylem replaces water lost and absorbs more from root hair cells

75
Q

importance of transpiration

A
  • water for photosynthesis
  • mineral ions eg magnesium for making chlorophyll
  • cools leaf in warm weather
76
Q

what affects rate of transpiration

A
  • temp: hotter = faster evaporation
  • humidity: dry = faster evaporation
  • wind: wind removes vapour = more vapour can evaporate
  • light intensity: brighter = faster photosynthesis