Option 1: Relationships Flashcards
What is anisogamy?
Anisogamy refers to the differences between male and female sex cells.
Describe male sex cells.
Male cells (sperm) are small, mobile, and continuously produced from puberty to old age.
Describe female sex cells.
Female cells (ova) are larger, static, and produced at intervals for a limited number of years.
What are the consequences of anisogamy?
There are plenty of fertile males but fewer females, leading to different mating strategies.
What is inter-sexual selection?
Inter-sexual selection is the selection of mates between sexes (e.g., females selecting males or males selecting females).
What is the female strategy in mating?
Females prioritize quality over quantity, making a greater investment of time, commitment, and resources.
Why do females need to be choosier than males?
Females seek a male who will provide healthy offspring and support them with resources.
How do mating preferences impact behaviour?
Preferences of both sexes determine attributes that are passed on, such as height being a marker of fitness in males.
Females who choose the tallest mates will have greater reproductive success and innate preferences are passed on.
What is intra-sexual selection?
Selection of mates within sexes, e.g. males competing with other males for mates.
What is the male reproductive strategy?
Quantity over quality; males do best by reproducing as frequently as possible.
Why is competition necessary for males?
Females are a limited resource and are choosy.
What happens to males who compete successfully?
They pass on their genes to the next generation, perpetuating those traits.
What impact does intra-sexual selection have on mating behavior?
The pressures of intra-sexual selection leads to patterns such as male aggression — the most aggressive males are more likely to reproduce and a male preference for youthful, fertile women because these are signs of fertility leading to reproductive success.
What is self-disclosure?
Self-disclosure refers to revealing intimate information to another person, such as likes, dislikes, hopes, fears, interests, and attitudes.
Why is self-disclosure important in a relationship?
Self-disclosure plays an important role in the development of a relationship as most people are careful about disclosing too much too soon.
What is social penetration theory?
Social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor 1973) describes self-disclosure as a gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else.
What does revealing personal information signify?
Revealing personal information is a sign of trust.
What happens as romantic partners disclose more information?
They ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each other’s lives, gaining a greater understanding of each other.
What are the two aspects of social penetration theory?
Breadth and Depth
Why is breadth narrow at the start of a relationship?
Breadth is narrow at the start because revealing too much information may be off-putting and lead to one partner quitting the relationship.
What happens to depth of self-disclosure as a relationship develops?
As a relationship develops, more layers are gradually revealed, including intimate information and painful memories.
What is the need for reciprocity in relationships?
Reciprocity is essential for a relationship to develop.
What do Reis and Shaver (1988) suggest about self-disclosure?
They suggest that successful relationships require both broadening and deepening of self-disclosure, along with reciprocity.
What is involved in successful relationships regarding self-disclosure?
Successful relationships involve disclosure from one partner that is received sensitively by the other partner.
What happens after one partner discloses information?
This should lead to further self-disclosure from the other partner.
What did Shackelford and Larsen (1997) find about symmetrical faces?
People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive.
This is thought to signal genetic fitness that cannot be faked.
Why is symmetry considered an ‘honest’ signal?
Symmetry is thought to indicate robust genes that are likely to be passed on.
What is the evolutionary explanation for physical attractiveness?
We have evolved a liking for attributes that signal high quality.
What are neotenous features and why are they attractive?
Neotenous (baby face) features are thought to trigger protective and caring instincts related to attachment in infancy.
How does attractiveness play a role after the formation stage of a relationship?
Attractiveness continues to be an important feature of the relationship after marriage.
For example, McNulty et al. (2008) found this to be true.
What is the halo effect?
The halo effect describes how physical attractiveness is generalized to other positive attributes.
What did Dion et al. (1972) find regarding physically attractive people?
Physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable, and successful compared to unattractive people.
What is the matching hypothesis?
The matching hypothesis states that we choose partners whose attractiveness matches our own.
How do we assess our partner’s attractiveness according to the matching hypothesis?
We assess our own value to a potential partner to determine the level of attractiveness we seek.
What example illustrates the matching hypothesis?
If we judge ourselves as 6/10, we are likely to seek a mate of a similar level of attractiveness.
What does choosing a partner involve according to the matching hypothesis?
Choosing a partner is a compromise between seeking attractiveness and the risk of rejection.
What do evolutionary theories suggest about mate selection?
Evolutionary theories suggest we should seek the most attractive mates.
What is the compromise in partner selection?
We compromise by ‘matching’ attractiveness to avoid aiming for partners that are ‘out of our league’.
What is filter theory?
Filter theory, proposed by Kerckhoff and Davis in 1962, explains attraction in terms of attitudes and personalities.
What are the two fields in filter theory?
The two fields are the field of availables and the field of desirables.
What is the field of availables?
The field of availables refers to the pool of potential partners who are accessible to us.
What is the field of desirables?
The field of desirables is selected from the field of availables via three filters of varying importance at different stages of a relationship.
What is the first level filter in filter theory?
The first level filter is social demography, which includes features like social class and geographical location.
How does social demography affect partner selection?
You are more likely to meet and have meaningful encounters with people who are physically close and share features with yourself, such as the same social class.
What happens to those who are too different in social demography?
Anyone who is too ‘different’ is filtered out before the next stage.
What is the second level filter in filter theory?
The second level filter is similarity in attitudes, which involves sharing beliefs and values.
Why is similarity in attitudes important?
It is important for the development of romantic relationships, especially for couples who have been together less than 18 months.
How does agreeing on basic values affect relationships?
Agreeing on basic values promotes better communication and self-disclosure in early stages of a relationship.
What did Byrne (1997) find about similarity in attitudes?
Byrne found that similarity in attitudes causes mutual attraction.
What happens when similarity in attitudes does not exist?
When similarity does not exist, the relationship often fades after only a few dates.
What is the third level filter in filter theory?
The third level filter is complementarity, which is partners meeting each other’s needs
What is complementarity in relationships?
Partners complement each other when they have traits that each other lacks.
Why is complementarity important in relationships?
It is important in longer term/later stages of a relationship.
What feeling does complementarity give to romantic partners?
It gives a feeling of togetherness and ‘making a whole’.
Can you provide an example of complementarity?
One partner may enjoy making the other laugh, and in turn this partner enjoys being made to laugh.
This illustrates how partners meet each other’s needs.
What is an example of nurturing in complementarity?
One partner likes nurturing while the other enjoys being looked after.
This shows how partners can fulfill each other’s needs.
What does Social Exchange Theory (SET) assume?
SET assumes that relationships can be explained in terms of economics, focusing on the exchange of goods or intangible things such as favors.
What is the minimax principle in SET?
The minimax principle suggests that partners are motivated to minimize costs to themselves while maximizing rewards.
How is satisfaction judged in SET?
Satisfaction is judged in terms of profit, which is the perceived value of costs minus the value of rewards.
What happens to profitable and unprofitable relationships in SET?
Profitable relationships continue, while unprofitable relationships fail.
What are the nature of costs and rewards in SET?
Costs may include loss of time or stress, while rewards may include sex, praise, or companionship.
What is Comparison Level (CL)?
CL is a judgment of the reward level we expect in a relationship, determined by relationship experiences and social norms.
What is Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt)?
CLalt involves considering whether we might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship.
What does Duck (1994) suggest about alternatives in relationships?
Duck suggests that there are always alternatives around, and if the costs of our current relationship outweigh the rewards, then alternatives become more attractive.
What are the four stages of relationships in SET?
The four stages are: Sampling stage, Bargaining stage, Commitment stage, and Institutionalization stage.
What occurs during the Sampling stage?
The Sampling stage involves exploring rewards and costs by experimenting in our relationships and observing others.
What happens during the Bargaining stage?
The Bargaining stage occurs at the start of a relationship where partners negotiate around costs and rewards.
What characterizes the Commitment stage?
In the Commitment stage, relationships become more stable, costs reduce, and rewards increase.
What is the Institutionalization stage?
The Institutionalization stage is when partners become settled because the norms of the relationship are established.
What is the role of equity in relationships?
Most people have a need for equity in relationships. Underbenefitting and overbenefitting can lead to dissatisfaction.
What does social exchange theory suggest?
Social exchange theory suggests that partners seek equality or a balance between costs and benefits.
What do Walster et al. (1978) propose about equity?
Walster et al. propose that equity is more important where both partners’ level of profit should be roughly the same.
How does the underbenefitted partner typically feel?
The underbenefitted partner is likely to be the least satisfied, and their feelings may be evident in anger and resentment.
How does the overbenefitted partner typically feel?
The overbenefitted partner may feel less dissatisfied but is still likely to feel discomfort and shame.
What is equity about?
Equity is about the fairness of the ratios, not the size or amount of the rewards and costs.
What happens if one partner puts a lot into the relationship but also gets a lot out?
If one partner puts a lot into the relationship but at the same time gets a lot out of it, then that will seem fair enough.
What does equity theory predict about dissatisfaction?
The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction: equity theory predicts a strong positive correlation between the two.
How does inequity impact both partners?
This applies to both the overbenefitted and underbenefitted partner.
What can happen to equity during a relationship?
Changes in equity occur during a relationship; at the start, it may feel natural to contribute more than you receive.
What happens if inequity continues as a relationship develops?
If one person continues to put more into the relationship and get less out of it, then satisfaction with the relationship may fail.
How does the underbenefitted partner respond to inequity?
The underbenefitted partner will work hard to make the relationship more equitable if they believe it is possible to do so.
What is required to restore equity?
The greater the inequity, the more work is required to restore equity.
What type of change could occur to address inequity?
The change could be cognitive rather than behavioral; for example, the partner might revise their perceptions of rewards and costs.
What can happen if perceptions of rewards and costs are revised?
If the perception of rewards and costs are revised, actual abuse can become accepted as the norm for that relationship.
What is Rusbult’s investment model?
An extension of Social Exchange Theory (SET) that suggests commitment depends on satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives, and investment size.
What defines a satisfying relationship according to Rusbult’s model?
A relationship where partners receive more rewards than expected, based on social norms and past experiences.
What are the three factors that determine commitment in a relationship?
Satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives (CLalt), and investment.
What is investment in the context of Rusbult’s model?
Resources associated with a romantic relationship that would be lost if the relationship ended.
What is satisfaction level?
The extent to which partners feel the rewards of the romantic relationship exceed the costs.
What does comparison with alternatives (CLalt) mean?
A judgment about whether a relationship with a different partner would reduce costs and increase rewards.
What are the two types of investment?
Intrinsic and extrinsic.
What is intrinsic investment?
Resources put directly into the relationship, such as money, energy, and self-disclosures.
What is extrinsic investment?
Investments that were previously external to the relationship but are now closely associated with it, such as a jointly purchased house or children.
What happens if investments are increasing and satisfaction is high?
The relationship is likely to continue.
What is the formula for commitment in Rusbult’s model?
Commitment is determined by satisfaction + alternatives + investment.
What does high commitment indicate in a relationship?
High satisfaction (more rewards with fewer costs), less attractive alternatives, and increasing investment lead to commitment.
What is the relationship between satisfaction and commitment?
Commitment matters more than satisfaction; a dissatisfied partner may stay in a relationship if their investment is high.
What are relationship maintenance mechanisms?
Behaviors used by committed partners to keep the relationship going.
What is accommodation in relationship maintenance?
Promoting the relationship.
What does willingness to sacrifice mean?
Putting a partner’s interests first.
What is forgiveness in the context of relationship maintenance?
Forgiving a partner for serious transgressions.
What are positive illusions?
A partner may have an unrealistically positive view of their partner.
What is derogation of alternatives?
A partner may be negative about tempting alternatives or other people’s relationships.
What is Duck’s phase model?
Duck’s phase model describes the process of relationship breakdown through four distinct phases.
What does Duck argue about the ending of a relationship?
Duck argues that the ending of a relationship is not a one-off event but a process that takes time.
What characterizes each phase in Duck’s model?
Each phase is characterized by a partner reaching a threshold where their perception of the relationship changes.
What is the intra-psychic phase?
The intra-psychic phase is when a partner becomes dissatisfied and broods on the reasons for this, focusing on their partner’s shortcomings.
What is the threshold for the intra-psychic phase?
The threshold is ‘I can’t stand this anymore’, indicating a determination that something has to change.
What occurs during the dyadic phase?
In the dyadic phase, the partner discusses their justification for ending the relationship, airing dissatisfactions about equity and commitment.
What is the threshold for the dyadic phase?
The threshold is ‘I would be justified in withdrawing’.
What happens in the social phase?
In the social phase, the partner seeks support from joint friends and may encourage them to choose a side.
What is the threshold for the social phase?
The threshold is ‘I mean it’.
What is the grave-dressing phase?
The grave-dressing phase involves preparing a suitable story of the relationship’s end for wider consumption.
What is the threshold for the grave-dressing phase?
The threshold is ‘It’s now inevitable’.
What is self-disclosure?
Self-disclosure is the act of revealing personal information about oneself to others.
How does self-disclosure differ in FtF and online relationships?
Self-disclosure is different in face-to-face (FtF) and online relationships due to the presence of nonverbal cues in FtF interactions.
What does reduced cues theory suggest?
Reduced cues theory (Sproull and Kiesler 1986) suggests that computer-mediated communication (CMC) relationships are less effective due to the lack of nonverbal cues.
What is the impact of lack of cues on communication?
The lack of cues about emotional state leads to de-individuation, resulting in disinhibition and potentially aggressive communication.
Can CMC relationships involve more self-disclosure?
Yes, CMC relationships may involve more self-disclosure due to the feeling of anonymity.
What does the hyperpersonal model suggest?
The hyperpersonal model (Walther 2011) suggests that early self-disclosure in CMC leads to quicker development of relationships, which can become intense but may also end quickly.
How can online image manipulation affect self-disclosure?
In CMC, the sender can selectively present themselves, leading to less accountability and potentially more self-disclosure.
What is the concept of absence of gating?
Absence of gating refers to the lack of obstacles that may hinder relationship formation in FtF interactions.
What do McKenna and Bargh (1999) argue about online relationships?
They argue that facial disfigurements or speech impediments may be obstacles to FtF relationships, but online relationships can develop without these ‘gates.’
What are the benefits of absence of gating?
Without the obstacles of FtF communication, individuals can create different online identities and overcome barriers, such as a shy person becoming more extraverted.
What is a potential downside of creating an online persona?
There is a risk of creating an untrue persona, such as a man presenting himself as a woman.
What is the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)?
The CAS was used by Malty et al. (2006) to identify three levels of parasocial relationship attraction.
What are the three levels of parasocial relationships identified by CAS?
The three levels are: entertainment-social, intense-personal, and borderline pathological.
What is the entertainment-social level?
This is the least intense level where celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction.
What characterizes the intense-personal level?
This is an intermediate level where someone becomes more personally involved with a celebrity, which may include obsessive thoughts.
What defines the borderline pathological level?
This is the strongest level of celebrity worship where fantasies are uncontrollable and behavior is more extreme.
What does the absorption-addiction model explain?
It suggests that parasocial relationships can make up for personal deficiencies and provide an escape from mundane lives.
What are the two components of the absorption-addiction model?
The two components are absorption and addiction.
What is absorption in the context of the absorption-addiction model?
Seeking fulfillment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus their attention on the celebrity and identify with them.
What is addiction in the context of the absorption-addiction model?
Like a physiological addiction, the individual needs to increase their ‘dose of involvement’ to gain satisfaction, which may lead to extreme behaviors.
What does Bowlby’s attachment theory suggest?
It suggests that early difficulties in attachment may lead to difficulties in forming successful relationships later in life.
How do attachment problems relate to parasocial relationships?
Such difficulties may lead to a preference for parasocial relationships, as they do not require the same social skills.
What attachment types are linked to parasocial relationships?
Insecure-resistant and insecure-avoidant attachment types are linked to parasocial relationships.
Why are insecure-resistant types likely to form parasocial relationships?
They want to have their unfulfilled needs met in a relationship where there is no real threat of rejection.
What do insecure-avoidant types prefer?
They prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of any type of relationship, either social or parasocial.
