opposition to government, 1918-89 Flashcards
LO: the impact of Versailles, political extremism and crises 1918-33; opposition and dissent in Nazi Germany 1933-45; political dissent and active challenge 1949-89
what’s the argument that Weimar was a ‘makeshift democracy’?
implies that democracy in Germany was the result of an unhappy and hasty compromise, rather than the result of a popular desire for a democratic govt
what evidence supports the idea of Weimar being a ‘makeshift democracy’?
military leaders, conservatives, nationalists, and communists supported democracy for various reasons such as securing peace, preventing a communist revolution, or avoiding nationalist authoritarianism
what was the Kiel Mutiny of November 1918?
German sailors mutinied against the Kaiser and army leaders, leading to strikes and rebellions that spread across major industrial towns. these rebellions rejected the new democratic govt and set up soviets to control factories and towns
what was the goal of the Spartacist uprising in January 1919?
the Spartacists, a radical group, aimed to replace Germany’s capitalist govt with a network of local soviets made up of workers and soldiers
how did Ebert respond to the Spartacist uprising?
Ebert ordered the army, supported by the Freikorps, to crush the rebellion
Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were executed, and more than 100 workers were killed
what happened during the Bavarian Republic of March 1919?
a Soviet Republic was declared in Bavaria, with workers’ councils and Red Guard defending workers’ power, but the Freikorps crushed the govt in May 1919, and a right-wing govt took over
what triggered the Kapp Putsch in March 1920?
the disbanding of the Ehrhardt Marine Brigade and disarmament measures required by the TofV led to a right-wing military coup against the Weimar govt
what was the Ruhr uprising in March-April 1920?
communist workers in the Ruhr formed a ‘Red Army’ and controlled large parts of the region, but the govt, with the help of the Freikorps, crushed the uprising, leading to over 1,000 deaths
what was the significance of the assassination of Walter Rathenau in 1922?
Rathenau, a Jewish foreign minister, was killed by right-wing extremists, highlighting the growing opposition to the Weimar govt from the right
what happened during the KPD-supported uprising in Saxony in 1923?
the KPD attempted to establish a communist govt in Saxony but was overthrown by the German army
what was the Munich Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923?
Hitler attempted to seize power in Munich, hoping for army support, but was crushed by the govt
Hitler was arrested and used his trial to criticise the Weimar Republic
what was the period from 1924-29 known as?
the Golden Years; characterised by relative stability, with no major attempts to overthrow the govt or political assassinations
what were some remaining signs of opposition during 1924-29?
support for extremist parties increased briefly and big businesses, particularly in the Ruhr, began opposing govt decisions on industrial disputes
what caused political extremism to grow in 1929-33?
the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the subsequent economic depression led to polarisation, with more Germans turning to extremist political parties for solutions
which parties benefited most from the political extremism in 1929-33?
the Nazi Party and the KPD (communist party) were the major beneficiaries of growing support for extremism during this period
why did support for the Nazi Party grow from 1929?
Nazi propaganda, Hitler’s opposition to the Young Plan, and the SA’s involvement in anti-communist violence helped expand Nazi influence and gain support from business leaders
how did Nazi electoral support grow between 1930-32 ?
from 18.3% in 1930 to 37.3% in 1932, markinga direct opposition to the Weimar Republic as Hitler sought to abolish democracy
what were the uprisings/threats between 1918-23 and when?
the Kiel Mutiny in November 1928
the Spartacist upring in January 1919
The Bavarian republic from March-May 1919
the Kapp Putsch in March 1920
the Ruhr uprising, March-April 1920
Assassination of Walter Rathenau, June 1922
Munich Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923
how big were the SA by 1933?
500,000 members
what was the main goal of active resistance in Nazi Germany?
active resistance aimed to overthrow the Nazi regime, including attempts to assassinate Hitler and other acts of defiance
what was the army’s plot in 1934?
senior generals discussed a new govt led by von Papen supported by the army, with the Nazis in a secondary role.
This plan was defused after the Night of the Long Knives, which persuaded army leaders to trust Hitler
what was the reason behind the army’s opposition in 1934?
political - army leaders were concerned about the growing influence of the SA and the radical elements of the Nazi party
what did General Beck plan between 1938-44?
Beck planned to overthrow Hitler, form a new govt with Schacht, and negotiate peace with Britain.
He was behind two failed bomb plots in 1943 and 1944
what was Beck’s fate after the failed plot?
he was arrested and shot in prison after a failed suicide attempt
what was the Stauffenberg bomb plot of 1944?
Colonel von Stauffenberg, part of a group of officers, planted a bomb during a meeting with Hitler in june 1944. The bomb detonated, but Hitler survived, and the plot collapsed
what happened to Stauffenberg after the failed bomb plot?
he was arrested and executed along with hundreds of suspected conspirators
why did Stauffenberg oppose Hitler?
moral reasons - he was horrified by Germany’s military defeats and the atrocities committed by the SS
political reasons - he was not a Nazi and favoured restoring the monarchy
what was the Kreisau Circle?
the Kreisau Circle (1943-44) was a group of German elites who planned a post-Nazi govt.
They provided information to the Allies about the regime’s weaknesses but did not actively seek to overthrow it
what happened to Helmuth James Graf von Moltke?
he was arrested by the Gestapo in 1944 for providing information to the Allies about Nazi death camps and was executed
what was the goal of the Kreisau Circle?
political - to establish a democratic Germany based on Christian values, including Catholic and Protestant priests in their circle
what types of sabotage were carried out by workers?
workers engaged in lightning strikes, worked slowly, damaged machinery, and sabotaged production
some resistance groups, with Allied help, engaged in violent sabotage such as blowing up bridges and railway lines
how did the Nazi regime react to workers’ sabotage?
workers’ actions were overlooked if they were not organised. however, if resistance became too organised, the Gestapo arrested the members, as seen with the Anti-Fascist Workers’ Group in 1944
what was the Catholic Church’s role in resisting Nazi policies?
the Catholic Church protested Nazi policies like censorship of Catholic newspapers and the integration of Catholic youth groups into Nazi organisations
what victory did the Catholic Church achieve in 1935?
the Church won the reversal of a govt decision to ban crucifixes from Catholic school classrooms
what protest did Bishop Galen lead in 1941?
he protested against the Aktion T4 euthanasia program, forcing the govt to publicly back down
what was the SPD and communist resistance in nazi Germany?
the SPD and communist groups printed anti-Nazi literature, organised strikes, and spread their messages by word of mouth. After 1935, they had to rely on material smuggled from abroad
how did the Nazi regime react to communist and SPD resistance?
leaders of these resistnce groups were arrested and sent to concentration camps.
by 1938, it became easier to trace such groups, leadig to arrests
what were the motivations behind communist and SPD opposition?
political - communists and SPD members were opposed to Nazi policies and sought to organise strikes for better working conditions
social- they represented the working class, which was exploited under the Nazi regime
what small acts of non-conformity did people engage in?
acts included telling anti-Nazi jokes, failing to give the Nazi salute, or listening to banned American jazz music
what were a couple of youth resistance groups?
Edelweiss Pirates
Swing Youth
what were the Edelweiss Pirates?
working-class youth gangs who rejected Nazi youth militarism, ambushed Nazi youth members, and were mostly aged between 14-17
what was the reaction of the Nazi regime to the Edelweiss Pirates?
members were arrested by the SS or Gestapo
what was the Swing Youth?
middle-class young people who enjoyed jazz music, which had been banned by the Nazis since 1935. they listened to jazz and defied Nazi rules
what happened to members of the Swing Youth?
they were sent to concentration camps, such as Jutta and Inga Madling who were members sent to Ravensbruck for owning Jazz records
what were the main motivations for non-conformity under Nazi rule?
social reasons - people rejected the regime’s control over all aspects of life
moral reasons - many resisted due to opposition to Nazi ideology
what were the key reasons for the stability in the early years of West Germany?
the shock of defeat, onset of the Cold War, and the emergence of economic prosperity
how is the early period in West Germany described?
it was a time of general conformity, with underlying discontent emerging in the 1960s, particularly youth rebellion
what was the cost of the stability in FRG?
People were reluctant to confront their Nazi part and became absorbed in work and material prosperity, avoiding discussions about the past
what were some key issues that led to student protests in FRG?
overcrowing in universities, lack of student representation, the Nazi past of the older generation, and opposition to the Vietnam War
what were the broader issues that caused student protests in the 1960s?
the political dominance of the wealthy, the growing power of the establishment, materialism, and the increasing authoritarianism of the govt
what argument did Georg Picht make regarding education in 1964?
he argued that the education system was in crisis and could not sustain economic growth due to a shortage of teachers and resources
what caused student protests at the Free University in West Berlin?
the banning of radical journalist Erich Kuby from speaking against the Vietnam War, overcrowding, and staff shortages
what happened during the anti-war protests at the Free University in 1966?
2,600 students protested against the Vietnam War, leading to confrontations with riot police
how did the German govt respond to the student protests in the 1960s?
the govt increased funding for research but failed to fully quell student discontent
what were communal lifestyles among student radicals about?
they were opposed to materialism and society’s focus on wealth, promoting creativity, self-expression, and influenced by Herbert Marcuse’s critiques of Western society
what was the APO and what did it advocate for?
the APO (Opposition Outside Parliament) was a left-wing group that argued the Bundestag was dominated by parties serving the establishment and its own interests
who was Rudi Dutschke and how did his shooting affect protests?
he was a leader of the SDS (Socialist Students’ Union) and was shot by a neo-Nazi in 1968, leading to widespread protests across the FRG
what were the events surrounding Benno Ohnesorg’s death in 1967?
he was shot by a police officer during protests against the Shah of Iran’s visit, leading to violent mass protests across FRG
what were the major aims of the RAF?
to destroy communism, end Vietnam War, and overthrow the FRG, although they never clearly defined what they would replace it with
how did the RAF’s tactics evolve over time?
initially engaged in sabotage and arson, but later shifted to bombings, assassinations and kidnappings
what was the level of public support for the RAF?
initially, about 15% of the public sympathised with their goals, but support rapidly declined as their tactics became more violent
what events took place during the German Autumn of 1977?
key figures such as Siegfried Buback and Jurgen Ponto were murdered, and Hnns Schleyer was kidnapped by the RAF, leading to a military response and the eventual deaths of several RAF leaders
what was the general public’s response to RAF violence?
most Germans opposed the RAF’s tactics, and govt actions against them received widespread support
how did neo-Nazi groups evolve in FRG in the 1960s?
various neo-Nazi groups formed the NPD, but despite initial success, the struggled due to their aggressive tactics and the improving economy
what caused the Green Party’s rise in the 1980s?
protests against nuclear missile deployment in the FRG, esp. after the 1979 decision to station nuclear weapons in Europe
how did the Chernobyl disaster influence anti-nuclear protests in the FRG?
the 1983 nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl heightened opposition to nuclear power in FRG, leading to widespread protests
despite political scandals and economic downturns, what kept the FRG politically stable?
the overall support for the political system remained strong despite disillusionment from political scandals and economic issues
