controlling the people, 1918-89 Flashcards
LO: attempts to control extremism, censorship repression and propaganda, de-Nazification, constitutional and legal response to political extremism in FRG
what was the Ebert-Groener Pact?
it committed the army to defend the new regime against left9ik
what did the Stinnes-Legien Agreement guarantee?
it guaranteed trade unions recognition, an 8-hour working day, and free collective bargaining
what was the effect of the Stinnes-Legien Agreement?
union membership rose from 2.8 million in December 1928 to 7.3 million in 1919
what was Ebert’s first cabinet designed to do?
it was desigend to appeal to people across the left, inc. both the SPD and more radical members of the USPD
evidence of success in controlling the left?
the SPD was the most popular group on the German left, with 2/3 of deputies elected to the National Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils in December 1918 from the SPD. By contract, the Spartacists gained a mere 2% of the seats
evidence of failure in controlling the left?
the Ebert-Groener Pact made cooperation with radical socialists difficult, and radicals blamed Ebert for the deaths of Spartacist leaders
how did Ebert reduce political instability after the revolution?
he quickly called elections to the new National Constituent Assembly, which helped end the revolutionary period and bring stability
what was the outcome of the National Assembly elections?
it resulted in the creation of a new interim govt, and Ebert was named president on February 11, 1919
how did Ebert respond to the Kapp Putsch?
he moved the seat of govt to Stuttgart, invoked Article 48, and called a general strike
evidence of success in handling the Kapp Putsch?
the strike successfully shut down Berlin, forcing Kapp to flee after only 4 days
evidence of failure in handling the Kapp Putsch?
the Kapp Putsch led to a left-wing uprising in the Ruhr, which was brutally crushed by the army
what was the Law for the Protection of the Republic?
a law passed in July 1922, following Walther Rathenau’s assassination, which allowed the banning of extremist organisations
evidence of success in banning extremist parties?
by the end of 1922, the Nazis had been banned in several Germa states, inc. Prussia and Saxony
evidence of failure in banning extremist parties?
Gustav Ritter von Kahr passed emergency laws in Bavaria, leading to conflict with Ebert and allowing extreme right-wing groups to thrive
how did Ebert deal with the Kustrin Putsch and the KPD threat?
he used Article 48 to dismiss communists from regional governments and used the army to crush the communist militia
evidence of success in confronting extremism during the economic crisis of 1923?
he successfully used article 48 and the army to address three threats, inc. the Kustrin Putsch and the Munich Putsch
how did the police and judiciary respond to right-wing and left-wing extremism?
the police and judiciary were more lenient towards right-wing extremists, often allowing them to continue their activities, while being harsher on left-wing extremists
evidence of success in police and judiciary response?
the police and judiciary used their powers to defend the republic against left-wing extremism
evidence of failure in police and judiciary response?
the police were often sympathetic to right-wing groups, and most of the judiciary were conservative, leading to leniency for right-wing extremists e.g. Hitler’s trial
what were some of Stresemann’s key policies?
fulfilment, the Dawes Plan (1924), the Locarno Treaties (1925), and the Young Plan (1929)
evidence of success in Stresemann’s policies?
by 1929, extremism was in retreat, with the Nazis and KPD receiving less than 15% of the vote in the 1928 Reichstag elections
evidence of failure in Stresemann’s policies?
5.8 million Germans opposed the Young Plan, and the gradual approach to reversing the Treaty of Versailles was rejected by many germans
what was Hindenburg’s general approach to govt?
Hindenburg and other conservative nationalsits believed democracy was too weak and sought to replace it with a presidential govt
evidence of failure in Hindenburg’s approach?
his attempt to replace democracy with a presidential govt led conservatives to ally with the Nazis
how frequently did Hindeburg use Article 48?
1930 = 5
1931 = 48
1932 = 66
evidence of failure in Hindeburg’s use of article 48?
he used it to attack democratic elements, such as seizing control of the SPD-led govt in Prussia in July 1932
how did Bruning deal with paramilitary organisations?
he used article 48 to ban paramilitary uniforms and later banned the SA and SS in 1932
evidence of success in confronting extremism through banning uniforms?
in some areas, the police raided SA branches and confiscated uniforms
evidence of failure in confronting extremism through banning uniforms?
police were sympathetic to the SA, and SA continued underground using white shirts as substitutes for uniforms
what was Schleicher’s strategy regarding the Nazis?
he attempted to neutralise the Nazis by offering them a role in govt and hoped to divide the party by offering Strasser the vice chancellorship
what was von Papen’s strategy regarding the Nazis?
he lifted the ban on the SS and SA in June 1932 and offered Hitler position in cabinet as vice chancellor
evidence of failure in compromise with the Nazis?
von Papen’s and Schleicher’s strategies failed as Hitler refused and Strasser was ordered to refuse it too. They failed to ‘tame the Nazis’ and this led to them inadvertently contributing to the triumph of the Nazis in 1933
what was impact of Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment?
it led to an end of the French and Belgian occupation of the RUhr, which in turn helped solve the problem of hyperinflation
what is repression?
preventing people from doing something
what is censorship?
controlling publication of information in the media
what were the aims of Nazi repression and censorship?
weaken and destroy political opposition, repress individuals and groups that didn’t fit the nazi ideal of ‘aryan’, and control all aspects of life in German
what is a totalitarian state?
one in which a state controls all aspects of life
what is the idea of self-censorship?
the idea that due to Goebbels’ policies around censorship, German journalists would be forced to take responsibility of their work, Goebbels’ emphasised on the consequences of publishing/releasing inormation that goes against what had been preapproved, making journalist censor their own work in order to avoid the punishments
what was Heinrich Himmler’s role?
SS Reichsführer (leader)
what was Reinhard Heydrich’s role?
SS Obergruppenführer
what’s a statistic to illustrate the size of the Gestapo?
at its peak the Gestapo had only 30,000 officers for the whole country
why should this apparent weakness of the Gestapo not be overplayed?
the image of power served to intimidate potential opposition, and its own meagre resources were greatly enhanced by co-operation from the public (denunciations)
how did the flood of denunciations lead to a radicalisation of the Gestapo’s actions?
it resorted to arbitrary arrest, preventative custody and torture
what type of institutioon was the Gestapo?
it was essentially a reactive institution, dependent upon the cooperation of the Germans
what was the significance of the military parade on 30 January 1933?
it was a symbolic show of Nazi strength, highlighting Hitler’s reliance on militaristic force
how did the Nazis repress the KPD and SPD in early 1933?
the SA and SS violently targeted KPD and SPD members, breaking up meetings, arresting officials, and seizing assets
how did the Reichstag Fire escalate repression?
it suspended civil rights, allowing the SA and SS to arrest, beat and kill opponents without consequences
what was Dachau, and why was it significant?
the first concentration camp, set up in March 1933 to detain political opponents under ‘protective custody’
what happened during the Night of the Long Knives (1934)?
Hitler purged SA leaders, claiming they were planning a coup, resulting in the deaths of 74 and the arrest of 1,000
how did the SS and Gestapo operate between 1933-36?
they targeted political opponents, including those who did not fit the Nazi idea, like gay men and Jehovah’s Witnesses
how were gay man persecuted under Nazi rule?
they were arrested, sent to concentration camps, and many were convicted, while lesbianism was less targeted
what role did Goebbels play in controlling culture?
Goebbels controlled German culture through the Reich Chamber of Culture, overseeing the press, radio, film, music, and art
how did the Nazis control the press?
they centralised news sources, forced journalists to censor themselves, and took control of most newspapers
how did the Nazis use film for propaganda?
they controlled the film industry to promote their ideals and censored all films to align with Nazi policies
how did Goebbels enforce wartime censorship?
he suppressed news about military defeats and atrocities, banned foreign radio listening, and controlled cultural output
how did the Nazis justify their repression?
they argued their actions were legal under German law, citing the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act as foundations for their power
what was the special war penal code?
it allowed the Nazis to execute anyone obstructing the war effort and monitored govt officials for non-conformity
how did the Nazis punish non-conformity during the war?
they cracked down on behaviours like lateness, defeatist remarks, and political passivity, enforcing harsh punishments
what was de-Nazification?
process of removing Nazi influence and restoring democracy in post-war Germany
how did the Western Allies attempt to build popular support for democracy?
by making Germans visit concentration camps, holding war tribunals, banning the Nazi party, and screening former Nazis from key positions
what issues arose with war tribunals?
the sheer number of defendants caused delays, with minor figures often prosecuted instead of top leaders. Trials were halted by 1948 due to the Cold War
what challenge did the Allies face in identifying those who needed de-Nazification?
the Nazis were a mass movement, making it difficult to identify everyone who needed to be removed from power
how did disagreements among the Allies affect de-Nazification?
the US was proactive, while Britain and France were less focused, leading to a loss of interest in de-Nazification by the Allies
what was the problem with Fragebogen (questionnaires)?
they were inefficient, with many Germans falsely claiming to be anti-nazi. many were acquitted or could even buy ‘exoneration’ certificates on the black market
what was the purpose of the Nuremberg Trials?
to prosecute leading Nazis for war crimes and expose the criminal nature of the regime
what was effective about the Nuremberg trials?
they exposed the horrors of Nazi policies, leading to 12 death sentences and several lengthy prison terms
what was ineffective about the trials?
they were selective, with many guilty individuals not prosecuted, and others escaping justice by pleading they were ‘just following orders’
what were the other trials following Nuremberg?
trials by the Allies in each occupied zone, focusing on Nazis linked to war crimes
what was effective about these trials?
thousands were prosecuted, with hundreds executed, esp. in France and US
what was ineffective about these trials?
many perpetrators escaped justice, like Josef Mengele and Adolf Eichmann, who went into hiding
what challenges did the Allies face in the de-Nazification?
the large number of Nazi affiliates, the need for skilled workers, and practical problems led to the abandonment of many de-Nazification efforts
what was the issue with de-Nazifying skilled workers?
many skilled workers, such as doctors and engineers, were former Nazis, so their skills were prioritised over their past affiliations
what happened in the 1950s regarding de-Nazification?
in 1951, the Reinstatement Act allowed former Nazis to return to civil service, leading to criticism of the process
why did Adenauer’s govt include former Nazis?
Adenauer needed experienced profeshs for rebuilding West Germany, despite their Nazi past
how did German public react to the end of de-Nazification?
Many Germans were indifferent to former Nazis in positions of power, focusing instead on rebuilding the country. However, some still held positive views of Hitler, as shown by opinion polls (25%)
what was the criticism of Adenauer’s govt?
the inclusion of former Nazis in his government led to criticism, as some members had close ties to the Nazi regime.
what was the issue with emergency legislation in the FRG?
the FRG struggled with the question of enabling the federal govt to respond to crises (foreign invasion, internal rebellion) while maintaining democratic freedoms. Concern over emergency powers leading to dictatorial rule due to past experiences
what limitations did the FRG face at its inception?
The Statute of Ocuppation allowed allied forces to control in emergencies, limiting FRG’s sovereignty
Citizens and politicians feared the abuse of emergency powers to suspend democracy
what did the Basic Law (1949) say about emergency measures?
it emphasised human rights and limited govt power. it initially did not provide for emergency pwoers but allowed banning parties threatening democracy (e.g. Socialist Reich Party)
what was the connection between emergency powers and sovereignty?
the FRG’s sovereignty was questioned as it lacked emergency powers to defend itself, keeping Allied intervention rights in place.
Adenauer sught full independence, which was partially realised after the Paris Treaties (1954) but still allowed Allied control in emergencies
why did emergency legislation fail to pass in the 1950s?
SPD and FDP opposed it, resulting in its failure to pass in the Bundestag in 1958, 1960 and 1963
why did the SPD change its stance on emergency legislation in 1965?
it joined the Grand Coalition and changed its position as student protests and Cold War tensions grew
what were the ‘emergency laws’ passed in May 1968?
the Bundestag passed the laws granting powers like:
- intercepting mail
- tapping phones
- house searches
- restricting jobs linked to state security or education
how did the public view the 1968 emergency laws?
many saw them as a reminiscent of Article 48, raising concerns about authoritarianism
what safeguards were included in the emergency legislation?
- emergency powers required approval from both the Bundestag and state govts
- could not abolish checks and balances or dissolve Bundestag
- would expire automatically after 6 months unless renewed
what were the consequences of the 1968 emergency laws?
they gave the FRG full sovereignty, ending the Statute of Occupation and allowing control over its own emergencies
how did the FRG respond to domestic terrorism in the 1970s?
1972: 150,000 police mobilised to track RAF members
1972: formation of GSG9, a counter-terrorism unit
1972: Berufsverbot Law banned raicals from public sector jobs
1977: Banning Contract after Hanns-Martin Schleyer’s murder by the RAF
how did surveillance increase in the 1970s?
by 1977, police had over 6,000 people under surveillance, which was criticised by liberal media
what was the public response to anti-terrorism measures?
many supported the measures, fearing terrorism and trusting the govt’s stance that ‘those with nothinig to hide have nothing to fear’
how did the FRG address far-right extremism in the 1980s?
in 1983 they banned far-right groups like Action Front of National Socialists using the FRG Criminal Code, which prohibited Nazi symbols and ideas
how did the 1972 Munich Olympics influence govt action?
after the PLO hostage crisis, the FRG established GSG9, an elite anti-terrorism force, and strengthened counter-terrorism measures
what was the overall conclusion about the FRG’s approach to emergency legislation?
the FRG maintained a balance between ensuring individual liberties and taking necessary measures to respond to threats
Emergency laws remained in place but were designed to avoid dictatorial abuse, showing the stability of the FRG’s democratic framework
