Operant Conditioning

Question 1

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 1

Learning process where the strength of the behaviour is modified by the response to following that behaviour, with it being ellicted through through positive and/or negative modification [punishment and reward].

Question 2

Give an example of positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 2

positive: driving safely to become no.1 driver.
negative: driving safely to avoid fines.

Question 3

Define the four techniques of manipulating positive and negative stimuli to reinforce behaviours (4/4)

Answer 3

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: adding positive stimulus = to encourage a behaviour to happen again
AVERSIVE PUNISHMENT: adding negative stimulus = to punish a behaviour to stop it happening again

RESPONSE COST: removing a positive stimulus = to punish a behaviour to stop
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: removing a negative stimulus = to encourage a behaviour to happen again

Question 4

what is aversive punishment

Answer 4

the unpleasant stimulus is given after an undesired behaviour occurs with the aim of making the behaviour less likely

Question 5

What is a response cost

Answer 5

when a positive stimulus is taken away

Question 6

what is contiguity in operant conditioning

Answer 6

Contiguity  refers to the timing during the learning phrase, or how ideas, memories and experiences are linked closely together in time.

Question 7

what is contingency in operant conditioning

Answer 7

Contingency  relationship between a response and a reinforcer, or a response and the punisher (dependent on each other).

Question 8

what is Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 8

When reinforcement is given after each and every demonstration or performance of the desired behaviour.
Learning happens quickly when continuous reinforcement is used.
The drawback is that if reinforcement is stopped, the behaviour will quickly slow down and eventually stop.

Question 9

what is Partial Reinforcement

Answer 9

Occurs when only some of the desired behaviours are reinforced.
Skinner experimented with four different experimental conditions and manipulated both the timing and frequency of when he rewarded his animals for correct behaviours.

Question 10

define Interval Schedules and Ratio Schedules

Answer 10

Interval Schedules: reinforced based on time intervals that a behaviour is performed.
Ratio Schedules: reinforced based on the frequency (or number of times) of the behaviour being performed.

Question 11

define fixed and variable intervals with examples

Answer 11

• reinforcement delivered at predictable time. e.g., paid every fortnight
• reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time. e.g., fishing, dont know when they’ll bite but the longer the line is in the water the more likely of the bite.

Question 12

define fixed and variable ratios with examples

Answer 12

• reinforcement delivered after a predictable number of responses. E.g., commisions, being paid for every x number of items made
• reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses. E.g., gambling-reward after unpredictable number of presses

Question 13

Describe how schedules of reinforcement affect learning, extinction, and performance.

Answer 13

continuous reinforcement: reward the behaviour continuously each time it is performed. learning is fast performance may become dependent on the reward being present. Extinction is fast.

Question 14

Define behaviour modification in operant conditioning [5 steps]

Answer 14

the processing of modifying behaviours over the long-term using various motivational techniques and reinforcement strategies. Aims to replace problem behaviour with positive ones.
[5 steps]
1. monitor
2. negotiate a realistic goal
3. reinforcement schedule
4. start modification process and reward small improvements
5. gradually remove the reward

Question 15

What is the placebo effect

Answer 15

Placebo: a treatment which could be medication, therapy or other intervention that appears to have the benefits of the medical intervention. expectation for it to work makes it work.

Question 16

Observational learning

What is observational learning?

Answer 16

a type of learning that happens indirectly through a process of watching others and then imitating their behaviour, also known as modelling.

Question 17

Observational learning

Identify the four step process of Observation learning.
AARM

Answer 17

1) Attention – the individual notices something in the environment.
2) Retention – the individual remembers what was noticed.
3) Reproduction – the individual produces action that is a copy of what was noticed.
4) Motivation – the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behaviour will be produced again

Question 18

Observational learning

explain vicarious reinforcement and punishment

Answer 18

If a model is reinforced (rewarded) for their behaviour, you will be more likely to reproduce this behaviour yourself  vicarious reinforcement.

If a model is punished for their behaviour, you are less likely to reproduce the behaviour  vicarious punishment.

Question 19

Observational learning

How is operant and observational conditioning different?

Answer 19

Operant: Organism’s direct experience makes them learn. Person experiences consequences.

Observational: learning can occur indirectly through observation. Observer observes consequences.

Question 20

Observational learning

What are mirror Neurons

Answer 20

Mirror neurons: a type of cell in the brains of certain animals and humans that responds in the same way to a given action whether the animal performs the action itself or sees another animal perform the action.

Question 21

Behavioural Counts

Explain the advantage of using behavioural counts in research.

Answer 21

E.g., Bobo Doll Experiment .

Used to gather data on behaviours observed by researchers with inter-rater reliability shown to be very high (r=0.89).
Allows for objective quantitative data to be collected reducing observer errors.

Question 22

Learning differences

List four ways that influence how people learn differently.

Answer 22

**Personal characteristics
**Often relate to demographic information such as age, gender, personality, maturity, socioeconomic status, cultural background and specific needs of a learner (particular skills and disabilities/impairments to learning).
**Academic characteristics
**More education and/or learning related such as learning styles, learning goals, prior knowledge, educational type and educational level.
**Social/emotional characteristics
**Relate to the group or the individual. Includes group structure, place of the individual within a group, motivation, self-image etc.
**Cognitive characteristics
**Relates to attention span, memory, mental procedures, intellectual skills which determines how learners perceive, think, solves problems, organises and represents information in the brain.

Question 23

Learning differences - CBT

Describe how cognitive-behavioural therapy could be tailored to meet different people’s needs.

Answer 23

Can be used to treat anxiety and depression.
Has theoretical foundations in classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.
Views problematic behaviour as fundamentally learned – therefore makes sense that undesired behaviour can be unlearned.

Every person’s diagnosis of anxiety, depression, stress, anger management, addiction, hostility, post-traumatic stress disorder or other mental health concern will be unique to them.

Question 24

Observational Learning

What factors influence a model’s likliness to replicate a behaviour?

Answer 24

We perceive as warm and nurturing,
Who receive rewards for their behaviour,
Who are in an authoritative position in our lives,
Who are similar to us in age, sex and interests,
Who we admire or who are of a higher social status,
When we have been rewarded for imitating the behaviour in the past
When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities
When the situation is confusing, ambiguous or unfamiliar.