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Contemporary issues in biology 2Y > One Health > Flashcards

One Health Flashcards

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1
Q

What triggers the immune response?

A

Antigens (fond on the outside of viruses/ bacteria/ parasites..)

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2
Q

What cell types makes you feel unwell after infection?

A

Effector T lymphocytes (dangerous when in your system at high levels for a long period of time) as they create inflamation and tissue damage

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3
Q

Name some types of vaccines

A

live attenuated/ subunit/ killed/ inactive/ nucleic acid

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4
Q

Give some examples of viruses with current vaccination programmes.

A

polio / covid/ rabis / mpox/ hpv/ ebola/ sars

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5
Q

What is the aim of prophylactic vaccination? When is this vaccine applied?

A

to prevent infection through developing immunity within an individual (occurs before infection)

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6
Q

What is the aim of therapeutic vaccination? When is this vaccine applied?

A

it accelerates immune response in an individual (used for individual’s which are or have been infected)

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7
Q

What is in a vaccine?

A

Waer/ Active ingredient (small amount of harmless bacteria or virus )/ preservative and stability (allows for storage and incresed shelf-life ) // residual traces (substances used in vaccine manufacturing ) / adjuvants (substance which enhances the bodys responce)

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8
Q

Why might some individuals not be able to get vaccinated ?

A

immunosuppressed / allergies / pregnant /

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9
Q

What is herd immunity ?

A

When a large proportion of a population is vaccinated , making it much harder for diseases to spread (breaks the chain of transmission)

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10
Q

What is the R0 number ?

A

The reproduction number , explains how likely the disease is going to spread around a population

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11
Q

What are some viruses which are currently trying to be eradicated by vaccines?

A

Polio , measles and rubella.

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12
Q

How do replicating vaccinations work?

A

Live, attenuated (weakened virus or bacterium is used to replicate a natural infection triggering an immune response, therefore an individual gains memory and adaptative immune cells.

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13
Q

How do non-replicating vaccines work?

A

(inactive/ subunit vaccines) stimulate an immune response using inactivated (killed pathogens) // subunit (specific parts of the pathogen e.g. proteins/ antigens..)

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14
Q

Give some examples of replicating vaccines, and what does the vaccine use?

A

Measles, Mumps and rubella (live attenuated ) // elobla (uses replicating viral vectors- transports genetic info )

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15
Q

Give some examples of non-replicating vaccines an what they use.

A

influenza( subunit , protein) // Hepatitis B (Virus-like particle) // SARS-CoV-2 (non-replicating viral vectors) or nucleic acid

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16
Q

What are some advantages of replicating (living) viral vaccines?

A

produces antibodies and t cell responses / stimulates mucosal immunity / single vaccine may be enough

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17
Q

What are some disadvantages of replicating (living) viral vaccines?

A

may be pathogenic and cause disease/ cell culture may not be possible/ cannot be applied to individuals who are immunosuppressant

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18
Q

What are some advantages of non-replicating (non-living) viral vaccines?

A

No risk of infection/ often a very fast response

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19
Q

What are some disadvantages of non-replicating (non-living) viral vaccines?

A

less immunogenic - less effective at producing cytotoxic T cells/ requires adjuvants / requires boosters / might not stimulate mucosal response

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20
Q

What does immunogenic tell you?

A

How much of the vaccine is needed to craete the same level of immune response (production of T, B cells and antibodies)

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21
Q

Give an example of a disease which has been eradicated by vaccines

A

Smallpox 1980. using a replicating , living viral vaccine

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22
Q

What characteristics of smallpox made it ‘easy’ to eradicate using a vaccine?

A

Has distinctive symptoms (rash, fever, headache..) // transmitted through droplets but only human-human. //long-lived immunity

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23
Q

What is meant by one health?

A

An approach to balance and optimise the health of people, animals and ecosystem.

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24
Q

Give some examples of global challenges which one health can be related to.

A

zoonoses (pathogens transmitted from animals to people)// food security (global warming and the effect on food production)// Biodiveristy (environmental health and water quality )

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25
Q

What was foot and mouth disease ?

A

A zoonoses disease which overtook Tanzania , affecting food security, one health aims to understand the origin and restricting movement and therefore transmittion

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26
Q

What is Nipah virus and what was done to mitigate its issues?

A

zoontonic disease, which leave individuals with fevers, transmitted through frit bats which feed on mango plantations humans use.// Mango plants can be covered to prevent transmission

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27
Q

What are some examples of rabis management?

A

PEP (post-exposure prophylaxis) delivered after individuals are bitten /// mass dog vaccinations//

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28
Q

What are some issues with the one health approach?

A

Interdisciplinary issues (different langue’s and trust issues) // driven by top-down initiatives therefore reduces community involvement

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29
Q

What makes a disease easy to eradicate it by a vrius?

A

a seasonal disease. easily diagnosed/ has no animal reservoir / distinctive symptoms

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30
Q

What is the an issue of RNA genome viruses ?

A

RNA genome, is good at mutating therefore the immune system must adapt to prevent widespread infection

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31
Q

What is a viral vector?

A

An unrelated harmless virus is modified to deliver genetic material for the target virus

32
Q

At what age is the HPV vaccination given in the UK?

A

12-13 years old

33
Q

Explain the structure of Mpox.

A

there is a linear double -stranded DNA // brick-shaped virus// has surface tubules // // has inter tandem repeaters (ITR) allowing the virus to fold within itself therefore DNA polymerase works much faster in a circle

34
Q

Explain the replication cycle of Mpox.

A
  1. Binding// 2. Fusion and entry // 3. Nucleocapsid release// 4. Transcription // 5. Translation // 6. Replication // 7. Lysis or budding // 8. Release
35
Q

Where is Mpox genetic information replicated ?

A

cytoplasm

36
Q

What are the two classifications of Mpox, what does this mean?

A

Clade I - More fatal as it inhibits the immune response of the virus creating a greater infection (faitality rate = 3.6%) is endemic to Central Africa // Clade II = less fatal at fatality rate 0.03%, is endemic to western African

37
Q

What was a trigger of increased efforts to eradicate Mpox?

A

Initially was found in West and Central Africa, with little treatment // 2003 huge outbreak in America due to illegal import of exotic animals, triggering a response from the WHO// The shift from Mpox being an exotic disease to reaching more ‘westernised’ countries.

38
Q

How is Mpox transmitted ?

A

a zoonotic ( first spread from animals to people) // can be directly (bites/ scratches) or indirectly (blood / bodily fluids)

39
Q

What are some symptoms of Mpox?

A

generic symptoms (coughing/ neck and back pains/ fever / swollen lymph nodes) It is a respiratory did ease

40
Q

Give some ways Mpox can be diagnosed.

A

electron microscope-> visualises // real-time quantitive PCR -> indicated the level of infection // Gene sequencing -> understands evolution and origin of disease(if it has been in animals)

41
Q

What are some methods for treating Mpox?

A

Anti-viral drugs = stop replication of the virus // monoclonal antibodies = bind to virus preventing it from entering the cell preventing replication// vaccination= specifically live-attenuated

42
Q

What is the difference between surveillance and monitoring?

A

Both collect and analyse data however monitoring is usually more descriptive and often doesn’t create an outcome

43
Q

What are the main 3 types of surviellence?

A
  1. active (requesting information of notifiable disease )// 2. passive (regular reporting of observed cases, without seeking out the information)// 3. Syndromic (reports based on symptoms, without knowing the cause e.g. monitoring search bases)
44
Q

What are some issues with attempts to monitor wildlife diseases?

A

Observing can be difficult due to remoteness/ scavengers/topography

45
Q

Give some examples of procedures used to test for:
1. Pathogens
2. Nucleic Acids
3. Antibodies

A
  1. pathogen -> culture
  2. nucleic acids-> PCR
  3. antibodies-> ELISA
46
Q

Give some examples of diseases which can be classed as re-emerging.

A

E-bola/ dengue fever and yellow fever

47
Q

What is molecular epidemiology and why is it useful?

A

Tracking the spread of infection using genetic data// helpful as understanding mutations can allow us to identify how diseases are evolving.

48
Q

What are the two main origins of diseases?

A
  1. co-evolution-> pathogen is transmitted from ancestors // 2. cross-species -> pathogen is recently introduced from another species
49
Q

Give some examples of impacts caused by disease?

A
  1. HUMAN - deaths // 2. LIVESTSOCK- economic loss/ peoples livelihood/ zoonotic diseases risk human health// 3. WILDLIFE- threatens endangered species/ may act as resoviours /
50
Q

What are some modes of transmission ?

A

DIRECT - cut/ bodily fluids / sexually transmitted infection// INDIRECT - food borne/ environmental contamination/ vector born … HORIZONTAL - between individuals or species// VERTICLE- mother to offspring via pregnancy , labour or breastfeeding

51
Q

What are some public health measures taken to reduce infection?

A

Improved hygiene / isolation/ social distancing / drugs/ antibiotics/ vaccination

52
Q

What is epidemiology?

A

Study of distribution of a disease and how to control it at a whole population level

53
Q

What is morbidity ?

A

Frequency of disease within a population measured by incidence and prevalance

54
Q

What is meant by incidence ?

A

The number of new cases per unit

55
Q

What is meant by prevalence?

A

The proportion of a population that has a disease at a given moment

56
Q

What is seroprevalence?

A

Proportion of serum samples reacting positively, therefore containing antibodies

57
Q

What is the R0 number?

A

The average number of secondary infections caused by a single infected host (in a population which is susceptible

58
Q

What is the 5 stages of eradication?

A
  1. CONTROL // 2. ELIMINATION/ 3. REDUCTION AND ERRADICATION// 4. EXTINCTION
59
Q

What should be considered with eradication models?

A

economic cost, social, biological and political impacts of the disease

60
Q

Give an example of a disease which has been eradicated through delivered efforts.

A

smallpox, using vaccinations

61
Q

What is toxocara?

A

A zoonotic disease, found in cats and dog faeces , it is a worm which causes the disease spreading to the eyes, liver an lungs… it creates generic symptoms making it hard to identify

62
Q

What are some problems which we are faced with when attempting to control Toxocara?

A

has multiple modes of transmission/ multiple sources of infection/ varies in exposure levels and has generic symptoms so hard to define

63
Q

What is taenia soliium (pork tapeworm)

A

A parasitic infection caused by worms often found in pig feaces which is found in many African countries making it a neglected disease

64
Q

How is toxocara managed?

A

It is in the control stage, as infection can be prevented through improved hygiene and education on picking up pet faeces

65
Q

What is guinea worm?

A

A zoonotic infection with revivors in dogs and bamboos/ obtained through drinking water containing the worm / can only be removed via physically removing the worm.

66
Q

What was the 3 step criteria of eradicating a disease?

A
  1. INTERRUPTION OF TRANSMISSION - there was no indigenous cases over a month// 2. PRE-CERTIFICATION- 0 indigenous cases found through active surveillance for at least 3 years // 3. CERTIFICATION - ICT visits the country to ensure it has been eradicated
67
Q

What are some methods of erradicartion?

A

mapping / surveillance/ stop contamination/ education

68
Q

What are some virulence factors of Vibrio cholera ?

A

rapidly proliferates inside the intestine , producing cholera toxins which prevent water uptake = dehydration// survives without oxygen (facultative anaerobic) // have pilus and flagella

69
Q

What is the role of the environemnt in the spread of cholera?

A

V .cholera is usually in aquatic environments// different environments promote the development of cholera// climate change is associated with increased cholera due to increase algae and therefore increased copepods( host of V cholera)

70
Q

What methods can be used to predict future cholera outbreaks?

A

Satellite remote sensing - monitors and predicts outbreaks (can be direct - identifying visual characteristics or indirect - identifying properties)//

71
Q

What are some methods used to mitigate cholera outbreaks?

A
72
Q

What are some symptoms of cholera?

A

watery diarrhoea / leg cramp/ dehydration/ vomiting / poor skin elasticity

73
Q

How does CT infect an individual?

A
  1. Cholera toxin is released by Vibrio cholera , CT B subunit binds to GM1//2. B subunit is taken into the cell via endocytosis // 3. toxin moves into ER // 4. A subunit separates and creates the overproduction of cAMP// 5. chlorine ions are released leading to fluid imbalance and diarrhea
74
Q

Which scientists were involved in findings around cholera?

A

John snow - found transmission source// Pacinit - first isolated V cholera// Koch discovered cholera causing organism // 1885 first vaccination created

75
Q

What are some remerging diseases?

A

cholera/ influenza/ malaria /TB

Contemporary issues in biology 2Y (6 decks)

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