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932 Pathophysiology > Obstructive lung disease > Flashcards

Obstructive lung disease Flashcards

1
Q

Preoperative pulmonary testing is indicated for which of the following patients?
A. A patient with a baseline NaHCO3 35 mEq/L
B. A patient undergoing a planned pneumonectomy
C. A patient with hypoxemia on room air (PaO2 < 60 mmHg)
D. A patient with suspected pulmonary hypertension
E. All these patients should undergo preoperative pulmonary testing.

A

E.

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2
Q

What is obstructive lung disease?

A

pulmonary conditions characterized by airflow limitation

can be inside the lumen, bronchial wall, or peri bronchial region- reversible vs. non-reversible

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3
Q

Orthostatic sleep apnea is a

A

mechanical obstruction of breathing that occurs during sleep when pharyngeal muscles relax

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4
Q

Risk factors for OSA include:

A

occurs in 24% of males & 9% of females
obesity is most significant precipitating factor
increasing incidence in pediatric cases

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5
Q

OSA is an independent risk factor for

A

increased morbidity

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6
Q

With OSA obstructed airways lead to

A

chronic hypoxemia and hypercarbia
results in inflammatory state, other pathologies such as atherosclerosis, HTN, stroke, insulin resistance and diabetes; Low FRC

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7
Q

Clinical features of OSA include

A

hallmark of OSA is habitual snoring, fragmented sleep, and daytime somnolence

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8
Q

Patients with OSA present with comorbidities related to

A

obesity, hypoxemia

systemic & pulmonary hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and CHF

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9
Q

Diagnosis of OSA can be done through

A

polysomnography- records the number of abnormal respiratory events/ Hr (the apnea plus hypo apnea index, AHI)

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10
Q

If a patient has OSA, there is no evidence that

A

delaying a case will improve outcomes

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11
Q

For AHI & OSA diagnosis,

A

> 5 associated with sleep-related symptoms
15 is diagnosis for moderate OSA
30 severe OSA

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12
Q

What does STOP BANG stand for?

A 
Snore loudly
daytime Tiredness
Observed stop breathing
High blood Pressure
BMI> 35kg/m^2
Age> 50 years
Neck circumference >40 cm
Gender- male
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13
Q

FEV1 is the

A

volume of air forcefully exhaled in one second (80-120% of predicted value)

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14
Q

FVC is the

A

volume of air forcefully exhaled after a deep inhalation (3.7L females, 4.8 L in males

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15
Q

The normal FEV1 to FVC ratio is

A

75-80%

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16
Q

The most clinically useful test of lung function includes

A

spirometry

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17
Q

FEV 25-75% is

A

measurement of air flow at midpoint of a forced exhalation

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18
Q

The Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is the

A

maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled in 1 minute
males 140-180 and females 80-120 L/min respectively

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19
Q

The diffusing capacity or DLCO is

A

the volume of carbon monoxide transferred across the alveoli into the blood per minute per unit of alveolar partial pressure
normal value is 17-25 mL/min/mmHg
a single breath of 0.3% CO and 10% helium is held for 20 seconds

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20
Q

The “common cold” results in

A

22 million doctor visits annually

-infectious (viral or bacterial) nasopharyngitis accounts for 95%

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21
Q

Diagnosis of acute upper respiratory infection is based on

A

signs & symptoms- non-productive cough, sneezing, and rhinorrhea
bacterial infections more serious and include- fever purulent nasal damage, productive cough and malaise, patient may present with tachypnea and wheezing

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22
Q

Pediatric patients with acute upper respiratory infection are at higher risk for

A

complications when actively sick, have history of reactive airway disease, ETT intubation, and airway surgery
The urgency of surgery should be determined to decide the case should be cancelled or not

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23
Q

If a case is cancelled due to acute upper respiratory infection it should not be rescheduled for

A

six weeks

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24
Q

The anesthetic management for acute upper respiratory infection includes

A

hydration, reducing secretions, limited airway manipulation, and LMA vs. ETT

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25
Q

Adverse respiratory events with acute upper respiratory infection include:

A

bronchospasm, laryngospasm, airway obstruction, postoperative croup, desaturation

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26
Q

Asthma is a

A

reversible airway obstruction characterized by: bronchial hyperreactivity, bronchoconstriction, and chronic inflammation of the lower airways

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27
Q

The development of asthma is due to

A

multifactorial- genetic or environmental

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28
Q

Describe the pathophysiology of asthma.

A

activation of the inflammatory pathway leads to infiltration of airway mucosa with:
-eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells, T cells and B Cells
inflammatory mediators include: histamine, prostaglandin D, and leukotrienes
airway edema results and there is thickening of the basement membrane
simultaneous edema and repair

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29
Q

Signs and symptoms of asthma include

A

episodic disease with symptom-free periods with acute exacerbations- episodes may last minutes to hours but patiently completely recovers
phases of daily attacks with some degree of obstruction

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30
Q

Clinical manifestations of asthma include

A

wheezing, productive and nonproductive cough, dyspnea and chest discomfort leading to air hunger, eosinophilia

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31
Q

Status asthmaticus is an

A

asthma exacerbation that persists despite treatment

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32
Q

Diagnosis of asthma is dependent on

A

symptoms- wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, airflow obstruction that is partially reversible with bronchodilators AND
pulmonary function testing

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33
Q

Patients with asthma have these changes on a pulmonary function test

A

FEV1 less than 35% of normal
downward “scooping” of expiratory limb of loop
Increase in FRC, but TLC remains within normal limits
DLCO is uncahnged

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34
Q

Arterial blood gases for patients with asthma are

A

normal in mild disease

hypocarbia and respiratory alkalosis are common- reflects neural reflex changes in lungs, not hypoxemia

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35
Q

For patients with severe asthma obstruction, the arterial blood gases are associated with

A

PaO2 less than 60 mmHg

rises in PaCO2 noted when FEV1 is less than 25%- fatigue in accessory muscles contributes to hypercarbia

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36
Q

Discuss the chest radiograph appearance for patients with asthma.

A

may be normal

-with severe asthma they may have hyperinflation or hilar congestion due to mucus plugging and pulmonary hypertension

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37
Q

The EKG of patients with asthma may show

A

right ventricular strain associated with increased pulmonary pressures
T wave inversion in right precordial leads (V1-4) and inferior leads (II, III, and aVF)

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38
Q

Status asthmaticus is a

A

life threatening emergency in which bronchospasm does not respond to treatment

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39
Q

Treatment of status asthmaticus includes:

A

IV corticosteroids, supplemental oxygen, IV magnesium sulfate to cause relaxation, oral leukotriene inhibitor, and administration of B2 agonists- metered dose inhaler, nebulizer, injection (IV or subcutaneous)

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40
Q

For patients with status asthmaticus who are resistant to treatment, think

A

airway edema and secretion

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41
Q

The treatment of patients with asthma is focused on

A

treating inflammation and bronchospasm

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42
Q

Drugs that are used to treat asthma include:

A 
corticosteroids- beclomethasone
long-acting bronchodilators- salmeterol; combination- Symbicort and Advair
Leukotriene modifiers- singular
Anti-IgE monoclonal antibody- omalizumab
Methylxathines- theophylline
mast cell stabilizer- cromolyn
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43
Q

For patients with asthma who have PFT’s performed,

A

it an be useful in determining treatment response

FEV1 is greater than 50% of normal= symptom free

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44
Q

For patients with asthma, it is important to investigate this in the preoperative period.

A

preoperative history- assessment of disease severity & treatment effectiveness
includes:
severity and characteristics of asthma- used of accessory muscles, active wheezing?
previous ICU admission or intubation required?- two or more in the past year?
eosinophil counts (inflammatory process)
PFT results- FVC <70% or Fev1/FVC <65% increases perioperative risk
presence of coexisting diseases
Should also assess for additional preoperative therapy

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45
Q

The optimal anesthetic for an asthmatic patient is

A

regional because there is less manipulation of the airway

46
Q

Induction for asthmatics includes

A

continue all meds until time of surgery- stress dose of steroids only if systemic therapy in last six months
deep induction- propofol vs. ketamine
IV or trans-tracheal lidocaine injection
sufficient volatile to suppress reactivity of airways= sevoflurane less pungent and has bronchodilation effects
avoid histamine releasing drugs- narcotics and paralytics

47
Q

Perioperative anesthetic considerations with asthma include

A

adjust I;E ratios to prevent air trapping
adequate fluid administration
avoid anticholinesterase drugs
light anesthesia vs. bronchospasm- administer b2 agonist, deepen anesthetic, consider steroids and/or magnesium, administer neuromuscular blocking agent

48
Q

_____ extubation may be considered for asthmatics

A

Deep extubation as long as you know that the patient is sufficiently breathing on their own

49
Q

COPD is the

A

non-reversible loss of alveolar tissue and progressive airway obstruction

50
Q

COPD will be the

A

third leading cause of death by 2030

51
Q

Risk factors for development of COPD include:

A

cigarette smoking, occupational exposures, pollution, recurrent respiratory infections, low birth weight, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency

52
Q

Emphysema is characterized by

A

enlargement of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchiole with destruction of walls
loss of alveoli and damage to capillaries
small airways are thin, tortuous, and atrophied

53
Q

A bullae is

A

one large alveolar sac

54
Q

Centriacinar emphysema is

A

more common in the apex

55
Q

Panacinar emphysema has

A

no regional preference but might be seen more in the lower lobes

56
Q

Paraseptal emphysema runs along

A

specific regions of the lungs

57
Q

Chronic bronchitis is a disease characterized by

A

excessive sputum production

expectoration of sputum most days for at least 3 months for 2 successive years

58
Q

Hallmark findings of chronic bronchitis include

A

hypertrophy of mucus glands of large bronchi
inflammatory changes in small airways
granulation of tissue, smooth muscle increases
peri bronchial fibrosis

59
Q

The diagnosis of COPD is via

A

spirometry- can only be definitively determined with this

60
Q

PFTs in COPD patients will reveal

A

a decrease in FEV1/FVC ratio- decrease <70% of predictive not reversible with bronchodilators
decrease in FEV25-75
Increase in FRC and TLC- increase in RV
Severity determined by GOLD spirometry criteria

61
Q

GOLD is used to determine

A

the severity of COPD and stands for global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease

62
Q

The treatment for COPD is

A

designed to relieve symptoms and slow disease progression
smoking cessation, long-term oxygen administration- relief of arterial hypoxemia with supplemental oxygen is more effective than any known drug therapy
Exercise training program

63
Q

Smoking cessation for patients with COPD significantly lowers

A

disease progression and decreases mortality by 18%

64
Q

Long-term oxygen administration for patients with COPD includes

A

2 lpm nasal cannula
PaO2 <55 mmHg
HCT >55%
evidence of cor pulmonale

65
Q

Drug treatments for patients with COPD include

A

long-acting B2 agonists (not albuterol)
inhaled corticosteroids
long-acting anticholinergic drugs- help dry out secretions– abitropium

66
Q

It is recommended that additional pharmacological treatment for COPD patients includes

A

vaccinations, diuretics, systemic corticosteroids, and theophylline

67
Q

Lung volume reduction surgery can be performed for patients with

A

severe cases of COPD

68
Q

The mechanism of improvement for lung volume reduction surgery for patients with COPD includes

A

increase in elastic recoil
decrease in amount of hyperinflation
improved diaphragmatic and chest wall movement
decrease in abnormal V/Q

69
Q

Anesthetic considerations for patients receiving lung volume reduction surgery includes

A

double-lumen tube, avoidance of nitrous oxide, avoidance of excessive pressure ventilation

70
Q

Preoperative anesthetic considerations for the patient with COPD include:

A

a preoperative history with
smoking history- smoking associated with numerous comorbidities
current medications- continued through morning of surgery
oxygen use
exercise tolerance
frequency of exacerbations- most recent and its course
use of non-invasive positive pressure ventilation

71
Q

Clinical signs in COPD are more predictive

A

of pulmonary complications

72
Q

Factors that contribute to postoperative complications for patients with COPD include

A

active clinical signs and symptoms
Age >60
ASA III or IV
current smoker- greater than 60 pack/year smoking history
Cardiovascular involvement- right ventricular function should be assessed by echocardiography
low albumin <3.5 g/dL
surgical factors

73
Q

Factors that determine the need for preoperative pulmonary function testing include.

A

hypoxemia or need for home oxygen with no known cause
NaHCO3 >33 mEq/L
PaCO2 >50 mmHg
history of respiratory failure due to persistent problem
severe SOB attributed to disease
planned pneumonectomy
difficulty assessing pulmonary status through clinical means
differential diagnosis needed
need to determine response to bronchodilators
pulmonary hypertension

74
Q

Risk reduction strategies for the COPD patient include

A

Smoking cessation- at least 6 weeks prior to surgery is best; immediate cessation is not recommended
nutritional status- malnutrition increases risk of pleural leaks after lung surgery
regional anesthesia- peripheral nerve blockade carries little risk of pulmonary complications
except for intrascalene blocks which can cause ipsilateral phrenic nerve palsy

75
Q

For general anesthesia in COPD patients,

A

volatile agents are useful
avoid nitrous oxide
careful with use of benzodiazepines and opioids

76
Q

For COPD patients undergoing general anesthesia and receiving volatile agents, it is useful because

A

they are rapidly eliminated

have bronchodilation effects- desflurane can cause irritation

77
Q

For COPD patients undergoing general anesthesia, nitrous oxide should be avoided because

A

it attenuates HPV and increases V/Q mismatch

78
Q

Use of benzodiazepines and opioids in patients with COPD can prolong

A

ventilatory depression

79
Q

For COPD patients requiring mechanical ventilation,

A 
provide humidification
avoid dynamic hyperinflation of the lungs- hemodynamically unstable patients; differential diagnosis is tension pneumothorax
Vt 6-8 mL/kg
PIP <30 cmH2O
FiO2 titrated to maintain SpO2 >90%
80
Q

Patients with COPD who are mechanically ventilated may develop

A

air trapping or auto PEEP
positive pressure ventilation is applied without sufficient expiration leading to an increase in intrathoracic pressure and a decrease in venous return
it increases pulmonary artery pressure
results in right heart strain

81
Q

Expiratory outflow obstruction disorders include

A

bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, primary ciliary dyskinesia, bronchiolitis obliterans, tracheal stenosis

82
Q

Postoperative considerations for the COPD patient include

A

lung expansion maneuvers, early ambulation, and neuraxial anesthesia

83
Q

For COPD patients needing continued mechanical ventilation, it is necessary to

A

maintain SpO2 >90%, PaCO2 to maintain pH of 7.35-7.45, postoperative trial of BIPAP

84
Q

Patients with COPD who suffer a bronchospasm could occur due to

A

light anesthesia or airway manipulation during induction

85
Q

Bronchospasm treatment includes

A 
figure out why
deepen anesthetic
deliver a short-acting bronchodilator
suction secretions 
IV steroids
epinephrine if neede
86
Q

For patients who develop air trapping, the capnography will

A

show sloped carbon dioxide concentration

expiratory flow does not reach baseline before next breath

87
Q

Bronchiectasis is the

A

irreversible airway dilation and collapse resulting from inflammation due to chronic infections- pseudomonas is the most common organism cultured

88
Q

With bronchiectasis, ____ may occur

A

significant hemoptysis; 200 mL over 24 hour period

89
Q

In patients with bronchiectasis, resultant airway collapse

A

increases susceptibility for recurrent infections- once established nearly impossible to eradicate

90
Q

The diagnosis of bronchiectasis is done through

A

history of chronic cough with purulent sputum

diagnostic imaging of CT confirms disease presence and location

91
Q

Signs and symptoms of bronchiectasis include

A

hemoptysis, dyspnea, wheezing, pleuritic chest pain, and finger clubbing

92
Q

Anesthetic considerations for the patient with bronchiectasis include:

A

detailed patient history- severity, most recent exacerbation, home medications need to be taken day of surgery
elective procedure should be delayed until patient is optimized

93
Q

If the patient with bronchiectasis has general anesthesia, these considerations are important.

A

frequent suctioning
double lumen tube
avoid nasal intubations

94
Q

Cystic fibrosis is an

A

autosomal recessive disorder that affects a single gene on chromosome 7
- prevents chloride transport and movement of salt and water in and out of cells
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

95
Q

Cystic fibrosis results in

A

abnormally thick sputum production outside of epithelial cells

96
Q

Cystic fibrosis leads to damage of

A 
lungs (bronchiectasis, COPD)
sinusitis
pancreas (DM)
liver (cirrhosis)
GI tract (ileus)
Reproductive organs (azoospermia)
97
Q

The primary cause of morbidity and mortality for the cystic fibrosis patient is

A

chronic pulmonary infection

98
Q

The diagnosis of cystic fibrosis is via

A

sweat chloride concentration >70 mEq/L
clinical manifestations of chronic purulent sputum production, malabsorption with response to pancreatic enzyme therapy, bronchoalveolar lavage high in neutrophils, COPD common in most adult patients

99
Q

The presence of normal sinuses is strong evidence that

A

CF is not present

100
Q

Treatment of CF is direct at

A 
alleviation of symptoms and includes
clearance of airway secretions
correction of organ dysfunction
nutrition
prevention of intestinal obstruction 
-gene therapy is currently being investigated
101
Q

Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a

A

congenital impairment of ciliary activity in the respiratory tract epithelial cells and sperm cells

102
Q

Primary ciliary dyskinesia includes these issues:

A

Karategener’s syndrome which is a triad of:
chronic sinusitis, bronchiectasis, situs inversus- seen in half of patients, patients may also develop decreased fertility

103
Q

Anesthetic considerations for patients with cystic fibrosis include:

A

elective procedures delayed until patient is optimized- controlling infection and removing secretions
vitamin K treatment- absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
General anesthesia with volatile agents- increased oxygen concentration, relaxation of smooth airway msucles
AVOID anticholinergic medications
awake extubation
adequate pain control

104
Q

Anesthetic considerations for the patient with primary ciliary dyskinesia include

A 
regional anesthesia preferred
preoperative focus- pulmonary infection & organ inversion
reverse position of ECG leads
left internal jugular vein cannulation 
right uterine displacment
avoid nasal pharyngeal airways
105
Q

Bronchiolitis obliterans is a disease of

A

the small airways and alveoli in children from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

106
Q

In adults, bronchiolitis obliterans may result from

A

viral pneumonia, collagen vascular disease (rheumatoid arthritis), Silo filler’s disease (inhalation of nitrogen dioxide), and graft vs. host disease following transplantation

107
Q

Bronchiolitis Obliterans Organizing Pneumonia shares features of

A

interstitial lung disease and bronchiolitis obliterans

Treatment is usually ineffective and includes corticosteroids and bronchodilators

108
Q

Tracheal stenosis occurs following

A

prolonged intubation or over-inflation of the endotracheal tube cuff

109
Q

Tracheal stenosis results in

A

ischemia of tracheal mucosa resulting in scarring- may not appear for several weeks after intubation
becomes symptomatic in the adult when tracheal diameter decreases to <5 mm- dyspnea prominent even at rest, must use accessory muscles in all phases of breathing
Flow loops display flattened inspiratory and expiratory curves

110
Q

The treatment for tracheal stenosis is

A

tracheal dilation is a temporary measure- balloon or surgical dilators, lasering of scarred tissue
tracheobronchial stent can be short or long-term solution
tracheal resection with anastomosis is the best treatment

111
Q

Anesthetic considerations for the patient with tracheal stenosis include

A

translaryngeal intubation
volatile agents to ensure maximum inspired oxygen concentration
helium, if available will decrease the density of gas mixture and improve flow through the narrowing

932 Pathophysiology (8 decks)

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