Observations

Question 1

WHat are observational studies?

Answer 1

Investigations where the researcher observes a situation and records what happens but does not manipulate an independent variable.

Question 2

Give some examples of different types of observational studies.

Answer 2

• Non-participant observations
• Participant observations
• Structured observations
• Unstructured observations

Question 3

What is a non-participant observation?

Answer 3

A type of observational study whereby the researcher does not join in with the activity being observed

Question 4

What is a participant observation?

Answer 4

A type of observational study where the observer is also a participant in the activity being studied.

Question 5

What is the difference between a non-participant and a participant observation.

Answer 5

A non-participant observation is a type of observational study whereby the researcher does not join in with the activity being observed, whereas a participant observation is where the observer is also a participant in the activity being studied.

Question 6

What is useful about participant observations?

Answer 6

Provides more insights about behaviour but does have a problem that the observer may lose some objectivity.

Question 7

What is a structured observation?

Answer 7

Where the researchers design a type of coding scheme to record the participant’s behaviour

Question 8

What kind of data generally does a structured observation provide?

Answer 8

Quantitative data

Question 9

What are coding schemes?

Answer 9

Ways of categorising behaviour so that you can code what you observe in terms of how often a type of behaviour appears.

Question 10

What is another name for coding schemes?

Answer 10

Behavioural checklist

Question 11

What is a behavioural checklist?

Answer 11

Ways of categorising behaviour so that you can code what you observe in terms of how often a type of behaviour appears.

Question 12

What are coding schemes/behavioural checklists?

Answer 12

Ways of categorising behaviour so that you can code what you observe in terms of how often a type of behaviour appears.

Question 13

What happens during behavioural checklists?

Answer 13

The observer simply ticks the relevant category when one of the behaviours occurs.

Question 14

What problem may occur during a behavioural checklist?

Answer 14

When a behaviour occurs which fits more than one category such as ‘carries on working’ whilst at the same time ‘listens to music’.

Question 15

a) What problem may occur during a behavioural checklist?

b) How can this problem be solved?

Answer 15

a) When a behaviour occurs which fits more than one category such as ‘carries on working’ whilst at the same time ‘listens to music’.
b) Making behavioural categories mutually exclusive, but this can be difficult to do with a checklist

Question 16

Explain the term ‘mutually exclusive’.

Answer 16

When behavioural categories do not overlap, however this is difficult to do with a checklist.

Question 17

What should behavioural checklists never include?

Answer 17

Gender as a category

Question 18

Why might researchers use a sampling technique in their observations?

Answer 18

It may be difficult to record everything.

Question 19

Give two examples of sampling techniques.

Answer 19

• Event sampling

- Time sampling

Question 20

What is event sampling?

Answer 20

It consists of the researcher recording an event every time it happens (e.g. ticking a box every time somebody eats in class)

Question 21

What is a problem with event sampling?

Answer 21

As with time sampling, if too many observations happen at once it may be difficult to record everything and so behaviours may be missed

Question 22

What is time sampling?

Answer 22

Occurs when the researcher decides on a time (e.g. every 5 seconds) and then records what behaviour is occurring at that time.

Question 23

What is a problem with time sampling?

Answer 23

Some behaviours will be missed and therefore the observation may not be representative

Question 24

When designing a procedure for an observation you conduct yourself, what is it important to do?

Answer 24

Decide on the categories of behaviour to observe and how you will code them, using either event or time sampling.

Question 25

What does the term ‘reliability’ refer to?

Answer 25

How consistent a measuring device is.

Question 26

When is a measurement said to be reliable or consistent?

Answer 26

If the measurement can produce similar results if used again in similar circumstances.

Question 27

What is a common way of assessing the reliability of observations?

Answer 27

To use inter-rater reliability, which involves comparing the ratings of two or more observers and checking for agreement in their measurements

Question 28

What is inter-rater reliability used for?

Answer 28

Assessing reliability of observations

Question 29

What is inter-rater reliability?

Answer 29

Comparing the ratings of two or more observers and checking for agreement in their measurements

Question 30

Give a way of improving the reliability of an observational study.

Answer 30

To ensure that the categories are clear, or that observers are well trained in the use of checklists. You could also use a pilot study.

Question 31

What does the term ‘validity’ refer to?

Answer 31

Whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine.

Question 32

Why might observations lack validity?

Answer 32

• If participants are aware they are being observed they may behave in the way they feel they should behave (demand characteristics)
• Observer bias (the observer may be influenced by expectations and not record objectively what happened)

Question 33

How might validity of an observation be improved?

Answer 33

• Categories could have been coded in a different or clearer way
• Observers could be kept unaware of aims of the observation
• More observations could be employed

Question 34

Give 2 strengths of observations.

Answer 34

• Lots of ecological validity, so results can be generalised to explain how behaviour would be affected in real life situations
• Low risk of demand characteristics as participants are unaware they are being observed. Results therefore more valid as behaviour is natural

Question 35

Give 3 weaknesses of observations.

Answer 35

• Lack of control over confounding variables, so it’s difficult to establish cause and effect as other variables may affect behaviour
• Observer bias (observer may interpret behaviour subjectively based on what they expect to happen. Results therefore not reliable as different people may interpret behaviour differently, so inter-relater reliability would need to be checked.)
• Can be considered unethical due to lack of consent and invasion of privacy if observation occurs in a private setting

Question 36

How might you rectify the ethical consensual issue in observations?

Answer 36

Use a poster in a public place stating that observations may occur: gains consent as people can choose to opt out if they wish. You could debrief in the same way by putting up a poster a few weeks after explaining the results of the observations.