Observations

Question 1

Controlled

Answer 1

Participants are observed in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory

Question 2

Naturalistic

Answer 2

Participants are observed in a natural setting, such as in an office or on a street corner

Question 3

Covert

Answer 3

Participants are not aware they are being observed

Question 4

Overt

Answer 4

Participants are aware they are being observed

Question 5

Participant observation

Answer 5

When the researcher actively takes part in the group or situation being observed

Question 6

Non-participant

Answer 6

When the researcher doesn’t take part in the group or situation being observed

Question 7

Observations

Answer 7

Method in which the researcher makes use of a naturally occurring change in the IV to observe the behaviour of participants

Question 8

To reduce observer bias:

Answer 8

Behavioural categories
Event sampling
Time sampling
Inter-rater reliability

Question 9

Behavioural categories

Answer 9

Before the observation, psychologists brainstorm all possible behaviours they might observe in their research, before dividing them into behavioural categories

Target behaviours will have then been broken down into observable categories

Question 10

Event sampling

Answer 10

Psychologists list the target behaviours and record the frequency of each event in a tally chart by counting the number of times it is observed

Question 11

Time sampling

Answer 11

Psychologists decide on a specific time frame that is suited to their research (e.g. every 30 seconds) and record all target behaviours at this given time

Question 12

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 12

This is when 2 or more researchers independently observe the same behaviours using the same behavioural categories

They then compare results, plotting them as a correlation and using a statistical test

Correlation coefficient of +0.8 or higher suggests the results have high inter-rater reliability and are reliable.

Question 13

Observations (generally) strength

Answer 13

Ethical: low levels of harm

A strength of observations is that they allow us to investigate psychological phenomena where it may be unethical to investigate with direct manipulation of the IV

Because doing so would cause harm (which participants have the right not to experience)

This is because observations only record behaviour (without direct manipulation)

And so there is no potential for harm

Question 14

Observations (generally) limitations

Answer 14

They are open to high observer bias

Which is when the observer shows unintentional bias in recording data to unfairly support their experimental hypothesis

This is because the experimenter may inadvertently only record data that supports the anticipated findings of the research

Meaning the results will not be valid

Question 15

Controlled observations strength

Answer 15

They have low levels of extraneous and confounding variables

That may randomly or systematically affect the DV

This is because controlled observations are performed in highly controlled laboratory settings

Meaning they minimise the impact of these unwanted variables

Question 16

Controlled observations limitation

Answer 16

They have low mundane realism

Which is when the procedure doesn’t seem mundane or like real life, decreasing the external validity of research

This is because they are performed in artificial and controlled setting,

Meaning the participants are less likely to show natural behaviour

Question 17

Naturalistic strength

Answer 17

High mundane realism

Which is when the procedure seems mundane or like real life, increasing external validity of research

This is because they are performed in a natural setting, which is close to everyday life

Meaning the participants are more likely to show natural behaviour

Question 18

Naturalistic limitation

Answer 18

High levels of confounding or extraneous variables

That may randomly or systematically affect the DV

This is because naturalistic observations are performed in natural settings, where the impact of these unwanted variables cannot be minimised

Meaning the results may not be valid

Question 19

Covert strength

Answer 19

Low evaluation apprehension

Which is when participants do not feel concerned that their behaviour may be judged by the experimenter, increasing the external validity of research

This is because participants are not aware that they are taking part in research

And therefore are only likely to show natural behaviour

Question 20

Covert limitation

Answer 20

Not possible to gain participants informed consent

Which is when participants are not made aware of the research aims, procedures and anticipated findings before signing their agreement to take part in the study

This is because participants are not aware that they are taking part in research

Therefore cannot be approached to provide consent before the observation

Question 21

Overt strength

Answer 21

Possible to gain participants informed consent

Which is when participants are made aware of the research aims, procedures and anticipated findings before signing their agreement to take part in the study

This is because participants are aware that they are taking part in research

Therefore can be approached to provide consent before the observation

Question 22

Overt limitation

Answer 22

High evaluation apprehension

Which is when a participant feels concerned that their behaviour may be judged by the experimenter, decreasing external validity of research

This is because participants are aware that they are taking part in research

Making them less likely to show natural behaviour

Question 23

Participant strength

Answer 23

They provide rich qualitative data with high external validity

Which is when the findings can be easily generalised to wider populations, in other settings and over time

As the experimenter takes part in the observation, they are likely to record a higher level of qualitative data

Meaning it will be rich in detail

Question 24

Participant limitation

Answer 24

High opportunity for experimenter effects

Which is when some characteristic of the observer causes participants to behave unnaturally, lowering the internal validity of research

This is because the experimenter actually takes part in the observation itself

Meaning they may inadvertently influence the behaviour of participants

Question 25

Non-participant strength

Answer 25

Low experimenter effects

Where it is impossible for some characteristic of the observer to cause participants to behave unnaturally, lowering the internal validity of research

This is because the experimenter doesn’t take part in the observation

Meaning they cannot influence the behaviour of participants

Question 26

Non-participant limitation

Answer 26

They provide data which is sometimes lacking in detail and external validity

Meaning it is more difficult to generalise the findings to wider populations, in other settings and over time

As the experimenter doesn’t take part in the observation, they are less able to record a high level of qualitative data

Meaning it is less rich in detail