observational research methods. twin and adoption studies Flashcards
what is naturalistic observation?
recording of spontaneously occurring behaviour that takes place where behaviour would typically happen with no controlled variables and covert
strength of naturalistic observation
high ecological validity + generalisability
high validity as it can gather ALL and rich data with observers collecting info on speech interactions body language etc
weaknesses of naturalistic observations
low validity if researchers cannot remain hidden, lack of control over extraneous variables so low reliability and no cause and effect relationships between variables est, deception
what is structured observation?
recording of spontaneously occurring behaviour but under conditions decided upon by the researcher
strengths of structured observations
more control over the environment than naturalistic - more accurate as high standardised- high reliability
weaknesses of structured observations
low eco-valid- behaviour is recorded in structured categories, lab-based environment, ppt may be aware so low validity. cannot attribute causality between IV and DV as there may be issues controlling variables
what is participant observation?
involve observers being part of the group studied with or without their knowledge- they are involved with the activity
strengths of participant observation
meaningful observations as the observers are part of what’s happening so data gathered is richer- high ecological validity as people should continue about their business in an everyday manner unless overt
weaknesses of participant observation
difficult to record observations of behaviour at the time it happens as observers are involved with what is happening + data may be prone to bias since it relies on researchers to recall info- researchers may become too involved and less objective and this may influence their natural behaviour affecting validity and ethical issues
what is non-ppt observation?
observers who are not part of what’s being observed may still be apart or observe one way
strengths of non-ppt observation
high validity-accuracy is high as the observer has no role in what is happening so they can focus on data collection and objectivity will be higher as observer has no role in activities being observed
weakness of non-ppt observation
little understanding of what’s happening so low validity and ethical issues
what is continuous observation?
the observer records every instance of behaviour- useful if the behaviour doesn’t occur often but there’s too much data
what is time sampling?
recording target behaviour for set lengths of time at set intervals reduces time spent observing reducing fatigue for the researcher increasing accuracy and there’s a gap for any additional notes
what is event sampling?
recording certain behaviour every time it occurs in a target individual or group of individuals throughout the observation period- limits behaviours needed to be observed reducing chance behaviour of interest will be missed but hard to observe a;; events if there are a large number of people to observe
what is content analysis?
research technique for systematic quantitative description of the content in written, spoken, and visual communication
what is the process of content analysis?
1) research q and hypothesis- shapes the research
2)sampling- material of interest is defined, decide how much info will be analysed
3) coding units
4)pilot studies
5) collecting datas
strengths of content analysis
summarising qual to quan allows it to be analysed and main trends can be drawn out and how they might relate to human behaviour
external validity is high as a study like this will be investigating something that is seen/read/heard by ordinary people- this increases the generalisability of the conclusions eg content analysis of squid game for violent content that would be seen by millions of people
socially sensitive as it investigates a topic that may produce findings that have a negative impact, easy replication
weakness of content analysis
cannot show cause and effect describes what trends or patterns are present but not why
researcher effects and subjectivity can be high as the researcher, codes and categories choose the content as well as analyse and interpret it into categories which reduces the validity
define ‘nature’
biological causes of behaviour, link to genes, inherited from parents
define ‘nurture’
environmental causes of behaviour, shows importance of upbringing
what do twin studies investigate?
the role of genes / nature
what do adoption studies investigate?
the role of environment / nurture
what % of DNA do MZ twins share?
100
what % of DNA do DZ twins share?
50
how are twin studies measured?
concordance rate
what does concordance show?
agreement
if it is 100, all behaviours are shared so is completely genetic
what does it mean if MZ concordance is higher than DZ?
genetic
what does it mean if MZ concordance is similar to DZ?
environment
3 characteristics of twin studies
longitudinal
primary data eg interview
secondary data eg hospital records
strength of twin studies (ethics)
investigates a naturally occurring behaviour
weakness of twin studies (gen)
MZ twin may be treated more alike than DZ so nature and nurture cannot be separated
weakness of twin studies (gen)
epigenetic modification
some differences in MZ twins
therefore never 100% concordance
weakness of twin studies (gen)
twins unrepresentative
1.5% UK births twins, 0.5% MZ
however, IVF treatments so twins are increasingly available
weakness of twin studies (validity)
allocated into MZ DZ by physical appearance
strength of twin studies (application)
studies tell us whether important behaviours are heritable
treatments and alert parents to children at risk
weakness of twin studies (deterministic)
no free will
but never 100% concordaance
twin studies may show the influence of genetics but no account for nurture
What does it suggest if the concordance rate is higher in adoptive relatives than in biological ones?
environmental cause
why are adoption studies carried out?
the environment of adopted children is not the same as that of biological families yet they have genes in common
- if there are similarities with bio family - due to genetics
strength of adoption studies (validity)
longitudinal
allow us to see change over time
weakness of adoption studies (gen)
adopting families may show similar characteristics
environment of an adopted family is unique
weakness of adoption studies (validity)
children are placed in adoptive family similar to their own
maybe similar to bio environment eg ethnicity, class, race
nature and nurture are not separated
strength of adoption studies (application)
show whether parenting can correct bad genes
likelihood of improvement through adoption
weakness of adoption studies (gen)
unique sample
may have had traumatic experiences
