Observational Methods of Conducting Research Flashcards
What is observational research design?
Descriptive research where the researcher observes and systematically records the behaviour of individuals to describe the behaviour.
List the ways to observe behaviour:
- naturalistic observation
- participation observation
- field experiments
- contrived observation
- observation of physical traces
- archival research, content analysis and digital traces
Ways to sample behaviour:
- continuous sampling
- situation sampling
- time sampling
- instantaneous sampling
- event sampling
- individual sampling
Ways to record behaviour
- the frequency method
- duration method
- interval method
- calculating other measures
What is naturalistic observation?
A researcher observes behaviour in a natural setting as unobtrusively as possible (e.g. Goodall’s studies of chimps)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation?
Advantages
- provides insight into real world behaviour (high ecological validity)
- can observe behaviours that can’t be manipulated
- highly flexible (behaviours, antecedents, consequents)
Disadvantages
- time consuming and expensive
- unfocussed (difficult to explain behaviours)
- potential for observer influence
- interesting behaviour may be missed (no control, infrequent, only see public behaviours)
- hard to examine during observation
- ethical concerns (people haven’t explicitly given consent)
How could we moderate the concerns of interference with behaviours and subjective interpretation in naturalistic observation?
- well defined operationalisations / behaviour categories
- train observers
- multiple observers
- video record for later analysis
- Reduce observer influence: conceal observer or habituate participants to observer
- Ethics: observe only public behaviours in public spaces
Ways to observe in naturalistic observation
Disguised observation: conceal the observer (e.g. hiding inside a parked car to measure the speed without the awareness of the drivers)
Undisguised observation: habituate participants to observer (installing visible cameras next to rearview mirror)
What is the purpose of intervention?
- can cause infrequent events to occur (simulated emergencies, confederates instigating behaviour)
- can facilitate repeat observations of the same behaviour
- can manipulate conditions and make causal inferences
- investigate the limits of an ability
- observe normally private events
Which methods of observation involve intervention?
Participant observation
Field experiments
Contrived observation
What is participant observation?
- the researcher engages in the same activities as the people being observed to observe and record their behaviour
- i.e. the pseudo patient (being sane in an insane place)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation?
Advantages
- observation of secretive behaviours
- allows observation when there is no other way to conceal observer
Disadvantages
- extremely time consuming
- affect subjects’ behaviours inadvertently as the observer is interacting with them
- lose objectivity
- huge ethical concerns (lying to people, and an e.g. is that an undercover police was hooked on heroin after posing as an addict)
What are field experiments?
Researchers manipulate one or more independent variables in natural settings.
i.e. Which jaywalker would you follow (low or high status)?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments?
Advantages:
- causal inferences without compromising ecological validity
- time effective (don’t need to wait for natural variance in IV)
- facilitates repeat observations
Disadvantage
- confounds may decrease internal validity (is what we see due to what we think it is)
- ethical concerns (not everyone is consenting to this)
What is contrived observation?
The observation of behaviours in settings arranged specifically to facilitate the occurrence of specific behaviours
e.g. inviting people into a lab decorated as an office to complete a collaborative problem solving task
What are the advantages and disadvantages of contrived observation?
Adv:
- do not need to wait for behaviours to occur naturally
- more time effective
- can manipulate IV if necessary
Disadv
- environment is less natural - therefore behaviours may be as well
- difficult to know what features of the environment need to be preserved
- may be impossible to habituate subject to being observed
How can we observe behaviours indirectly?
Through observation of physical traces and archival research, content analysis, and digital traces.
What is observation of physical traces?
- researcher looks at physical surroundings to find reflections of subject’s previous activity
- can be conscious (e.g. decorations) or unconscious (rubbish)
- may be privacy concerns
E.g. Arizona Garbage project (looking through household garbage to find out food preferences, waste behaviour, alcohol consumption)
Advantages and disadvantages of observation of physical traces?
Adv:
- high ecological validity
- no chance of affecting behaviors
- can observe behaviours that can’t be manipulated
- focussed and quick
- inexpensive and easy
- durable to an extent (much wider window to see if these behaviours occur)
Disadvantage
- interesting behaviours may be missed (no control, might leave no trace)
- ethical concerns
What are some other examples of physical trace analysis?
- selective erosion of tiles in a museum (relative popularity of exhibits)
- number of fingerprints on a page to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine
- position of radio dials in cars brought in for service
- age and condition of cars in a carpark to estimate affluence
- magazines donated to charity = people’s favourite magazine