Observation In Practice Flashcards
What does observation consist of?
- Investigators systematically watched, listens to and records the phenomenon of interest
- study their surrounding regularly + repeatedly with a curiosity spurred by theoretical questions about the nature of human action, interaction and society
What is the advantages of observation?
- can be used in both types of research
- enables the study of behaviour within subjects natural environment
- different observer roles can be adopted (participant or non participant)
- doesn’t rely on memory recall
- potentially overcomes discrepancies between actual + reported practice
- makes accessible subjects not accessible via other methods
What are the 2 types of observation?
Structured and unstructured observation
What are the advantages of structured observation?
- observation schedule
- rigour
- reliability
- validity
- external validity
- objectivity
What are the advantages of unstructured observation?
- researcher as instrument
- trustworthiness
- dependability
- credibility
- transferability
- confirmability
What are Gold’s typology 4 types of observation?
- complete participant
- participant as observer
- observer as participant
- complete observer
What is complete participant?
- working as part of the group being studied
- covert: role as researcher is concealed
What is participant as observer?
- working as part of the group being studied
- negotiated their role and all parties aware of this
- consent obtained from all gate keepers
- may be for long periods of time
What is observer as participant?
- only marginally involved
- everyone is aware of the role
- consent obtained from all gatekeepers
- may be intermittent
What is complete observer?
- “fly on the wall”
- distant and doesn’t interact with group
- in person, video and one way mirrors
What is important when carrying out observational research?
- gaining access
- gaining consent
- sampling
- recording observations (field notes)
What do you include in field notes?
- environment (layout + objects)
- people (activities, behaviours, interactions)
- dialogue + linguistic behaviours
- events
- timing + sequence
- personal reflexive diary
- method + timing of recording field notes
What is observation schedule?
- a “checklist” for collecting and recording data
- process of developing a schedule
- expert panel
- validity and reliability testing
- pre pilot and pilot work
What are the quality issues with observations?
- Hawthorne effect
- halo effect
- “going native”
- role conflict
- fatigue
- “impression management” being an “acceptable marginal member or acceptable incompetent”
- reflexivity
- ending relationships, debriefing + feedback
What are the characteristics of non-participant structured observation?
- positive perspective
- identity of researcher is known
- enhances the potential for behaviour to proceed as usual
- facilitates effective observer performance
- preferred role for continuous observational sampling
What do you observe with a structured observation?
- operationally defining the concept
- clarify the meaning of the concept
- clarify how it can be observed and recorded
- identify observable behaviours in advanced
What is the definition of observation?
A tool for understanding more than what people say about complex situations and can help to understand these complex situations more fully
How do you record data in a structured observation?
- development + testing of a structured observation schedule
- collection of structured data
- making field notes
- learn to observe analytically
Why does learning to observe analytically as a skill take time to develop?
Knowing what to look for and how to reflect on what is seen
What are the different sampling types of observational sampling?
- time sampling
- all occurrences/event sampling
- focal-subject sampling
What is time sampling?
Occurrence or non-occurrence of behaviours during each time period (Reid et al)
What is all occurrences/event sampling?
- all behaviours related to a specific event (Carr)
- knowledge about event occurrence/time to wait for occurrence (Day)
What is focal-subject sampling?
All occurrences of behaviour of an individual or group are continuously observed (Thomas, Morse & Bottorff)
What is an example of a observation data collection instrument?
Nurse Performance Scale
How do you develop a valid and reliable observational data collection instrument?
- use inter observer and internal consistency testing
- can also use this for content, construct, discriminant and convergent validity
What is content validity?
Does the tool measure what it is supposed to measure?
What strategies enhance content validity?
- concept analysis
- preliminary observation
- expert panel
- pilot work
What is included in observer performance?
- observer reliability
- observer drift
- observation requires accuracy in perception of detail
What is observer reliability?
Consistency of observer performance
What is observer drift?
- instability in recording over repeated period of observation
- due to forgetting, new learning, fatigue
What strategies help to enhance observer performance?
- observer training
- inter-observer reliability testing
- observer field notes and discussion during the data collection period
What is the reactive effect?
- Effect of observer on subject performance
- a validity and reliability threat
- ethical concern associated with responding to urgent needs
What are the contributing factors to the reactive effect?
- intrusiveness of observer
- interacting with the environment
- observer and subject attributes
- explanation of the study
- methods of data collection
How do you minimise reactive effects?
- adopt a rigorous approach to setting up the study in the fuel setting and making yourself known
- observer training during pre pilot and pilot world
- attention to observer dress
- observing discreetly and unobtrusively (focus on subjects)
- period of acclimatisation
- observation on repeated occasions
What is the permissible interaction?
- influences “normal” events
- results in loss of data
- contaminated data
- not to interact may result in alienation of the researcher in the field setting
What is permissible intervention?
- conflict between research role as observer and role as a health care professional
- potential bias by intervening
- anticipate dilemmas before entering field notes
- develop a protocol of permissible intervention
