Observation In Practice Flashcards

1
Q

What does observation consist of?

A
  • Investigators systematically watched, listens to and records the phenomenon of interest
  • study their surrounding regularly + repeatedly with a curiosity spurred by theoretical questions about the nature of human action, interaction and society
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2
Q

What is the advantages of observation?

A
  • can be used in both types of research
  • enables the study of behaviour within subjects natural environment
  • different observer roles can be adopted (participant or non participant)
  • doesn’t rely on memory recall
  • potentially overcomes discrepancies between actual + reported practice
  • makes accessible subjects not accessible via other methods
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3
Q

What are the 2 types of observation?

A

Structured and unstructured observation

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4
Q

What are the advantages of structured observation?

A
  • observation schedule
  • rigour
  • reliability
  • validity
  • external validity
  • objectivity
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5
Q

What are the advantages of unstructured observation?

A
  • researcher as instrument
  • trustworthiness
  • dependability
  • credibility
  • transferability
  • confirmability
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6
Q

What are Gold’s typology 4 types of observation?

A
  • complete participant
  • participant as observer
  • observer as participant
  • complete observer
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7
Q

What is complete participant?

A
  • working as part of the group being studied

- covert: role as researcher is concealed

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8
Q

What is participant as observer?

A
  • working as part of the group being studied
  • negotiated their role and all parties aware of this
  • consent obtained from all gate keepers
  • may be for long periods of time
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9
Q

What is observer as participant?

A
  • only marginally involved
  • everyone is aware of the role
  • consent obtained from all gatekeepers
  • may be intermittent
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10
Q

What is complete observer?

A
  • “fly on the wall”
  • distant and doesn’t interact with group
  • in person, video and one way mirrors
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11
Q

What is important when carrying out observational research?

A
  • gaining access
  • gaining consent
  • sampling
  • recording observations (field notes)
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12
Q

What do you include in field notes?

A
  • environment (layout + objects)
  • people (activities, behaviours, interactions)
  • dialogue + linguistic behaviours
  • events
  • timing + sequence
  • personal reflexive diary
  • method + timing of recording field notes
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13
Q

What is observation schedule?

A
  • a “checklist” for collecting and recording data
  • process of developing a schedule
  • expert panel
  • validity and reliability testing
  • pre pilot and pilot work
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14
Q

What are the quality issues with observations?

A
  • Hawthorne effect
  • halo effect
  • “going native”
  • role conflict
  • fatigue
  • “impression management” being an “acceptable marginal member or acceptable incompetent”
  • reflexivity
  • ending relationships, debriefing + feedback
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15
Q

What are the characteristics of non-participant structured observation?

A
  • positive perspective
  • identity of researcher is known
  • enhances the potential for behaviour to proceed as usual
  • facilitates effective observer performance
  • preferred role for continuous observational sampling
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16
Q

What do you observe with a structured observation?

A
  • operationally defining the concept
  • clarify the meaning of the concept
  • clarify how it can be observed and recorded
  • identify observable behaviours in advanced
17
Q

What is the definition of observation?

A

A tool for understanding more than what people say about complex situations and can help to understand these complex situations more fully

18
Q

How do you record data in a structured observation?

A
  • development + testing of a structured observation schedule
  • collection of structured data
  • making field notes
  • learn to observe analytically
19
Q

Why does learning to observe analytically as a skill take time to develop?

A

Knowing what to look for and how to reflect on what is seen

20
Q

What are the different sampling types of observational sampling?

A
  • time sampling
  • all occurrences/event sampling
  • focal-subject sampling
21
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Occurrence or non-occurrence of behaviours during each time period (Reid et al)

22
Q

What is all occurrences/event sampling?

A
  • all behaviours related to a specific event (Carr)

- knowledge about event occurrence/time to wait for occurrence (Day)

23
Q

What is focal-subject sampling?

A

All occurrences of behaviour of an individual or group are continuously observed (Thomas, Morse & Bottorff)

24
Q

What is an example of a observation data collection instrument?

A

Nurse Performance Scale

25
How do you develop a valid and reliable observational data collection instrument?
- use inter observer and internal consistency testing | - can also use this for content, construct, discriminant and convergent validity
26
What is content validity?
Does the tool measure what it is supposed to measure?
27
What strategies enhance content validity?
- concept analysis - preliminary observation - expert panel - pilot work
28
What is included in observer performance?
- observer reliability - observer drift - observation requires accuracy in perception of detail
29
What is observer reliability?
Consistency of observer performance
30
What is observer drift?
- instability in recording over repeated period of observation - due to forgetting, new learning, fatigue
31
What strategies help to enhance observer performance?
- observer training - inter-observer reliability testing - observer field notes and discussion during the data collection period
32
What is the reactive effect?
- Effect of observer on subject performance - a validity and reliability threat - ethical concern associated with responding to urgent needs
33
What are the contributing factors to the reactive effect?
- intrusiveness of observer - interacting with the environment - observer and subject attributes - explanation of the study - methods of data collection
34
How do you minimise reactive effects?
- adopt a rigorous approach to setting up the study in the fuel setting and making yourself known - observer training during pre pilot and pilot world - attention to observer dress - observing discreetly and unobtrusively (focus on subjects) - period of acclimatisation - observation on repeated occasions
35
What is the permissible interaction?
- influences "normal" events - results in loss of data - contaminated data - not to interact may result in alienation of the researcher in the field setting
36
What is permissible intervention?
- conflict between research role as observer and role as a health care professional - potential bias by intervening - anticipate dilemmas before entering field notes - develop a protocol of permissible intervention