Notes

Question 1

Cochrane Collaboration

Answer 1

1) International.
2) Supports development of Evidence based reviews into topics of clinical interest.
3) Best known source of interest.

Question 2

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence

Answer 2

1) UK based
2) Assesses technologies and interventions for appropriateness and cost effectiveness for NHS.
3) Promotes evidence based guidelines and determines funding for new treatments.

Question 3

When do you reject the null hypothesis?

Answer 3

When the results show the groups have different results due to the treatment

Question 4

What 4 things about quantitative research?

Answer 4

1) Procedures must be standardised (so can be repeated and verified).
2) Validity
3) Reliability
4) Should establish casual relationships

Question 5

What are the 5 levels of Hierarchy of evidence from lowest level of opinion

Answer 5

1) Expert opinion
2) Case Reports and Case Series (Descriptive studies)
3) Case-Control Studies
4) Cohort Studies
5) RCT

Question 6

Case Reports sample size and why performed?

Answer 6

• Small (frequently single case study) but generally less than 10.
• Rarity of cases, few resources, real clinical conditions, time constraints.

Question 7

Case Series sample size and what groups are like

Answer 7

• Same as Case Reports but >10 cases
• Insufficient numbers for meaningful analysis
• Single groups so no independent control group comparison so hard to find differences

Question 8

Why are Case Series done?

Answer 8

To collect pilot data to inform larger studies

Question 9

What are Case-Control studies?

Answer 9

• Observational study

- Unable to attribute causation as it does not fulfil Bradford-Hill criteria for causality

Question 10

What did Austin Bradford-Hill do?

Answer 10

Was one of the first people to conduct RCT in health care.

Question 11

Bradford-Hill Criteria

Answer 11

9 Criteria as valid today as the 1950’s

Question 12

What are the first 4 Bradford-Hill Criteria?

Answer 12

1) Specificity
2) Strength
3) Coherence
4) Consistency

Question 13

What are the last 5 Bradford-Hill Criteria?

Answer 13

5) Biological Plausibility
6) Alternative explanations
7) Temporal Relationship
8) Dose-Response
9) Experiment

Question 14

Cohort Studies?

Answer 14

• Do not have intervention

- Don’t specifically match people up, compare the observed people with general population

Question 15

Difference between cohort and case control studies?

Answer 15

Data collected prospectively in cohort studies. Collect the data you want not data available. Higher ranked.

Question 16

What are the other names for Paradigms?

Answer 16

Research traditions, worldviews, methodologies.

Question 17

What are the paradigms used in quantitative?

Answer 17

Positivism (empiricism) and post-positivism.

Question 18

What are the paradigms used in qualitative?

Answer 18

Interpretive, constructivism, critical social theory

Question 19

What are the 4 types of probability sampling?

Answer 19

1) Simple random
2) Stratified random
3) Cluster
4) Systematic

Question 20

What can result in poor internal validity?

Answer 20

If testing was not performed the same why in treatment & control groups

Question 21

Without internal validity

Answer 21

you cannot have external validity

Question 22

What threats internal validity? (6)

Answer 22

History, maturation, testing, instrumentation, mortality, selection bias

Question 23

What threats external validity? (3)

Answer 23

Selection effects, reactive effects (response to being in a study), measurement effects.

Question 24

Why do we perform statistical analysis?

Answer 24

To draw interferences from the sample that we studied about the population of interest

Question 25

What are the approaches to statistical analysis? (2)

Answer 25

1) hypothesis testing (using P values)

2) Estimation (using confidence intervals)

Question 26

What does hypothesis testing involve?

Answer 26

Set null hypothesis, set study, carry out test, obtain test statistic, compare test statistic to hypothesised critical value, obtain P value, make decision.

Question 27

What are confidence intervals calculated for?

Answer 27

Calculated for estimated quantity such as mean or median

Question 28

Give example of confidence interval

Answer 28

95% confidence interval is the range of values within which the true population quantity would fall 95% of the time, if the study were repeated multiple times.

• 95% confident that the true value lies within the specified range
• If range includes 0 then there may be no difference between groups,

Question 29

Normal size of qualitative research for Ethnography and Grounded theory. Then phenomenology sample.

Answer 29

Around 30 people.

Less than 10

Question 30

What is an example of purposive sampling?

Answer 30

Maximum variation sampling

Question 31

Types of qualitative sampling?

Answer 31

Convenience, snowball sampling, purposive and theoretical sampling.

Question 32

Name and explain qualitative data analysis programmes

Answer 32

NVivo and Atlas. Don’t do analysis for them (like SPSS) but help the researcher to organise data.

Question 33

First 5 CASP qualitative tool.

Answer 33

1) Clear statement of aims of research?
2) Qualitative methodology appropriate?
3) Research design appropriate to address aims?
4) Recruitment strategy appropriate to aims?
5) Data collected in a way that addressed the issue?

Question 34

Last 5 CASP qualitative tool.

Answer 34

6) Relationship between researcher and participants adequately considered.
7) Ethical issues taken into consideration?
8) Data analysis sufficiently rigorous?
9) Clear statement of findings?
10) How valuable is the research? Transferable? Practice?