Note-Taker's notes Flashcards
What are the normal elements of a fear response that can escalate into a panic attack?
Trouble breathing, increased heart rate, derealization, depersonalization
How do panic attacks differ from normal fear responses?
They peak within a quick few minutes
What is panic disorder characterized by?
Fear of having panic attacks in public
What are safety-seeking behaviors in the context of panic disorder?
Coping mechanisms like massaging chest muscles
What are some developmental changes that differentiate children from adults?
Emotions, language, relationships, cognitive functions
What is the significance of the developmental changes in children?
They are a ‘moving target’ and differ each time you see them
What is a key characteristic of infancy in normative development?
Looks to grab attention and makes sounds
What emotional behavior is typical in toddlers?
Frequent tantrums
What begins to develop in preschoolers (ages 3-5)?
Trust and perspective tasks
What age group experiences significant social development and peer relationships?
School age (6-10)
What is a common method psychologists use to assess cognitive ability in children?
Standardized tests like the WISC
What happens to cognitive ability scores from age 6 to age 9?
Scores are compared to age averages
What marks the onset of preadolescence (ages 11-12)?
Puberty and explosion of cognitive abilities
What is a characteristic of adolescence (ages 13-17)?
Increased emphasis on peer relationships
What is the age range for emerging adulthood?
18-29
What factors influence child psychopathology?
Role of peers, biological factors, role of parents
What criteria can define abnormal behavior?
Statistically uncommon, significant distress, impairment in functioning
What does DSM stand for?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
What is multifinality in the context of psychopathology?
Same cause, multiple final outcomes
What does equifinality refer to?
Different causes, same final outcome
What is etiology in relation to psychological disorders?
Factors that contribute to the development of a disorder
What is the diathesis-stress model?
Diathesis and stress are both necessary for the emergence of psychopathology
What are some theories of etiology for psychological disorders?
Biological, cognitive-behavioral, attachment, family systems, psychodynamic
What does the bio-psycho-social model indicate?
Interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors in diagnoses
What is the role of biological factors in Canice’s panic disorder?
Predisposition from her dad’s panic disorder
What social factors contributed to Canice’s panic disorder?
Modeling and witnessing a family member’s heart attack
What is resilience in the context of children experiencing adversity?
Successful adaptation in children who experience adversity
Resilience is the ability to cope with and adapt positively to challenging situations.
What factors are thought to influence resilience or vulnerability in children?
Differential susceptibility to environment
Factors include individual differences in sensitivity to environmental conditions.
What are the two categories used to describe different sensitivities to the environment in children?
Orchid vs. dandelion
This metaphor illustrates varying levels of sensitivity to environmental factors.
Describe dandelion children in terms of environmental stress.
They undergo a huge amount of stress with little impact on their psychological well-being
Dandelion children are more resilient to adverse conditions.
Describe orchid children in terms of environmental stress.
Very sensitive to susceptible factors
Orchid children thrive in supportive environments but struggle in adverse conditions.
What happens to children in good environmental conditions according to the concept of resilience?
They can reach their full potential, which may be more difficult for dandelion children
Orchids may excel in positive environments, unlike dandelions.
How can exposure to stress benefit children?
It helps them develop, get stronger, and learn their capabilities
Examples include physical exercise and academic challenges.
Fill in the blank: The ideal environment for children is not free of _______.
Adversity
Exposure to manageable stressors can foster growth and resilience.
What does it mean that a risk factor may not have a specific effect on any given person?
It indicates that risk factors do not guarantee a specific outcome for all individuals.
List three examples of risk (vulnerability) factors.
- Poverty
- Problematic caregiving
- Mental illness in the family
What are some protective (resilience) factors?
- High IQ and school achievement
- Easy temperament; low neuroticism
- Authoritative parenting style
Fill in the blank: The presence or absence of a tantrum doesn’t say much in a child, as individual child symptoms occur in almost all children at some point. This reflects the need to consider _______.
[contextual factors]
True or False: High IQ is always a protective factor for individuals with OCD.
False
What does the presence of many problems displayed by children referred for treatment indicate?
They are similar to those occurring in less extreme forms in younger children.
What is a meaningful construct in understanding executive functioning failures?
When someone who is old enough exhibits these same failures.
What does research suggest about individual problem behaviors in clinic-referred children?
Most individual problem behaviors do NOT, by themselves, discriminate between groups of clinic-referred and non-referred children.
List two risk factors related to genetics.
- Genetics
- Birth complications
Fill in the blank: People may reframe complicated events in beneficial ways, for example, saying ‘I can’t imagine my life without this _______.’
[event]
What is the relationship between high IQ and depression in individuals on the autism spectrum?
The higher the IQ, the higher the risk of depression.
List three elements that can be considered protective factors in child development.
- Financial resources
- Good schools
- Access to activities
What are symptom clusters?
Collection of symptoms that seem to be connected with each other
Typically seen with questionnaires
What are externalizing problems?
Under-controlled problems directed at others
Examples include oppositional and conduct problems
What are internalizing problems?
Over-controlled problems directed inward
Examples include anxiety/fear and low mood/depression
How does the structure of adult psychopathology compare to child psychopathology?
Similar structure exists in both adult and child psychopathology
What is the DSM categorical system based on?
Presence or absence of condition based on diagnostic criteria
What must be present for a diagnosis in the DSM system?
Observable behaviours for a specified period of time
How many diagnostic features must be present for a diagnosis?
Several, but not all, diagnostic features must be present
What is a limitation of the DSM categorical system?
Lacks depth, particularly in relation to treatment
What happens when symptoms are no longer present according to the DSM?
You may no longer meet the criteria for a diagnosis
How do learning development disorders typically persist?
They tend to persist over time
Do personality disorders tend to persist?
Yes, personality disorders tend to persist
What is selective mutism?
Condition where individuals can speak normally to certain people but not to others
In selective mutism, can individuals speak to their parents?
Yes, individuals can typically speak to their parents
How is selective mutism related to social anxiety?
It is similar to proto-social anxiety
Fill in the blank: Categories in the DSM are useful for understanding a diagnostic, but they can’t be the only thing we base ourselves on because they lack _______.
Depth
What is developmental psychopathology?
Framework for understanding both normal development and its maladaptive deviations
It emphasizes complex interactions affecting development.
What types of factors does developmental psychopathology consider?
Endogenous and exogenous factors, including:
* Genetic influences
* Family dynamics
* Social context
* Cultural influences
The interaction of these factors is essential for predicting developmental changes.
What are the pros of diagnosing a child with a psychological disorder?
Pros include:
* Early diagnosis can lead to effective interventions
* Diagnosis can provide relief to the child and family
* Reduces fear associated with unknown behaviors
Accurate interventions can be applied once a diagnosis is established.
What are the cons of diagnosing a child with a psychological disorder?
Cons include:
* Risk of misdiagnosis if done too early
* Stigma associated with certain labels
* Potential impact on identity formation in children
These factors can have long-term implications for the child’s social interactions.
What are the two views on the importance of diagnosis?
- Diagnosis matters for:
* Treatment recommendations
* Class placement
* Family understanding
* Support group access - Never diagnose unless necessary to avoid:
* Stigmatization
* Misleading explanations
This debate highlights the complexities of labeling in psychology.
What is the multi-method approach to assessing children and adolescents?
The multi-method approach includes:
* Meeting with the child/adolescent
* Meeting with parents
* Observing interactions
* Utilizing rating scales
* Classroom observations
* Standardized testing
This comprehensive approach ensures a well-rounded understanding of the child’s behavior.
How do clinical assessments for children differ from those for adults?
Clinical assessments for children are often:
* Less formal
* Conducted through games or drawing
* Age-dependent in approach
This helps to create a comfortable environment for the child.
What is an example of a structured diagnostic interview used with children?
An example of a structured diagnostic interview is:
* Not a questionnaire
* Involves direct interaction with the child or parent
These interviews are designed to gather qualitative data about the child’s behavior.
What is the purpose of using questionnaires like the RCADS?
The purpose of using questionnaires like the RCADS is to compare:
* The child’s score to other children
* The parent’s questionnaire to other parents’ scores
This helps in establishing norms and identifying areas of concern.
What is the mean of a T-score?
50
What is the standard deviation of a T-score?
10
In which types of questionnaires are T-scores commonly used?
Behavioural questionnaires and mental health questionnaires
What are cognitive results typically expected to show?
Everything is right where we’d expect him to be
What do low academic results, especially in reading, potentially indicate?
Could be evidence of a learning disability
In the context of a learning disability, how do cognitive results typically present?
Regular functioning in other areas, but lower in one specific area
What could a high score indicate in testing?
Not a cause for concern
What are some possible explanations for low test scores?
- Nervous for the test
- Medical condition
- Bad day
What is a randomized controlled trial (RCT)?
Study design used in healthcare to assess the effectiveness of treatments
Why is RCT considered the ‘gold standard’ for treatment research?
Minimizes bias and provides strong evidence for causality
What does RCT allow researchers to confidently claim?
The positive change is due to the treatment
What does an RCT not provide information about?
Why the treatment works
How are participants assigned in a randomized controlled trial?
Random assignment to groups
What is typically compared in an RCT?
Groups based on predetermined outcome measures
What treatment did Group 1 receive in the panic disorder case?
CBT for panic disorder
What was the posttreatment mean RCADS score for Group 1?
21
What was the posttreatment mean RCADS score for Group 2?
32
What is Cohen’s d value considered in the panic disorder case?
0.92, which is considered a large effect size
What does a large effect size in treatment indicate?
An effective treatment
What is a meta-analysis?
A statistical technique for combining data from several studies
What does the validity of a meta-analysis depend on?
Quality of source studies
What are some benefits of conducting a meta-analysis?
- Clarifies inconclusive areas of research
- Identifies sources of diversity across studies
- Detects publication bias
What can biased studies do to the results of a meta-analysis?
Affect the results
What does a horizontal line in a meta-analysis reflect?
An effect size of 0.8, indicating a large effect size
What do exposure-based therapies show effectiveness for?
Anxiety-based disorders
What does the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence provide?
Clinical practice guidelines
These guidelines are based on evidence and aim to improve health and care services.
Who reviews the literature for the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence?
A group of knowledgeable experts
These experts analyze current research to inform guidelines.
What does CBT stand for?
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
CBT is a psychotherapeutic approach that addresses the interplay between thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.
In the CBT model, what does ‘cognition’ refer to?
Thoughts
Cognition involves phrases or images that come to mind about various situations.
What are ‘behaviors’ in the context of CBT?
Actions that can be seen or private behaviors
Private behaviors include internal actions like counting to 10 in your mind.
What do ‘feelings/emotions’ represent in the CBT model?
A felt sense localized in the body, usually described in one or two words
Emotions can vary greatly even among individuals experiencing the same situation.
How do thoughts, behaviors, and feelings interact in CBT?
They are bidirectional; each influences the other
This means thoughts can affect behaviors, which in turn can affect feelings, and vice versa.
True or False: Two people can experience the same thought and have identical emotions about it.
False
Different interpretations of the same thought can lead to different emotional responses.
Fill in the blank: In a scenario where you hear a loud horn honk, your cognition might include thoughts like, ‘________’.
‘What is that?’
Other examples of thoughts might include feelings of guilt or assuming you’re in the way.
What might be a behavioral response to hearing a loud horn honk?
Jump, look towards the noise, give a look to the driver, look away, walk faster
These behaviors indicate a startled response to the unexpected noise.
What feelings might arise from hearing a loud horn honk?
Rush of adrenaline, guilt, anger
These emotions may initially arise due to the perceived threat of the situation.
After realizing the horn honk was just your professor saying hi, how might your cognition change?
‘I know that person’
This realization can shift your feelings and behaviors positively.
What could be a new behavioral response after recognizing the professor?
Wave and smile
This indicates a shift from a defensive to a friendly behavior.
What feelings might you experience after recognizing the professor?
Relief and excitement
The change in perception can lead to positive emotional responses.
What is ‘outcome monitoring’ in the context of CBT?
Tracking progress when doing intervention
This helps assess the effectiveness of the therapeutic process.
What is the duration for the symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder to be diagnosed?
At least 6 months
How many symptoms must be exhibited to meet the criteria for Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
At least four symptoms
What are the three main categories of symptoms for Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
- Angry/Irritable Mood
- Argumentative/Defiant Behavior
- Vindictiveness
What is one symptom of Angry/Irritable Mood?
Often loses temper
What is a symptom of Argumentative/Defiant Behavior?
Often argues with authority figures
What does Vindictiveness involve according to the diagnostic criteria?
Has been spiteful or vindictive at least twice within the past 6 months
What is the impact of the disturbance in behavior associated with Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
Distress in the individual or others in his or her immediate social context
What are the specified severity levels for Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
- Mild
- Moderate
- Severe
What characterizes mild severity in Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
Symptoms are confined to only one setting
In moderate severity of Oppositional Defiant Disorder, where must symptoms be present?
In at least two settings
For severe Oppositional Defiant Disorder, how many settings must symptoms be present in?
Three or more settings
How is ODD seen?
A collection of behavioral descriptions; lacks insight into underlying processes
ODD stands for Oppositional Defiant Disorder.
What is a key characteristic of individuals with ODD?
Diversity in behaviors and symptoms
Individuals with ODD can exhibit a wide range of behaviors.
What is the nature of the diagnostic category for ODD?
Controversial; may provide a label that is not always helpful
The effectiveness of the diagnosis can vary by context.
What defines conduct disorder according to the diagnostic criteria?
A repetitive persistent pattern of behavior violating rights or societal norms
This includes aggressive, deceitful, and rule-violating behaviors.
What are the criteria for aggression in conduct disorder?
At least three of the following:
* Bullies, threatens, or intimidates others
* Initiates physical fights
* Uses weapons causing serious harm
* Physically cruel to people or animals
* Steals while confronting a victim
* Forces someone into sexual activity
These criteria help assess the severity of conduct disorder.
What behaviors are included under destruction of property in conduct disorder?
Deliberate engagement in:
* Fire setting intending serious damage
* Destruction of others’ property
This highlights the severity and intent behind the actions.
What constitutes deceitfulness or theft in conduct disorder?
Includes:
* Breaking into homes, buildings, or cars
* Lying to obtain goods or avoid obligations
* Stealing items without confronting a victim
This reflects manipulative or dishonest behaviors typical in conduct disorder.
What are serious violations of rules in conduct disorder?
Includes:
* Staying out at night against parental prohibitions
* Running away overnight
* Truancy from school
These behaviors often manifest before age 13.
What is the impact of the disturbances in behavior in conduct disorder?
Causes clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning
This emphasizes the disorder’s effect on daily life.
What is the age criterion for diagnosing conduct disorder?
If age 18 or older, criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder must not be met
This helps differentiate between disorders.
What is the prevalence of conduct disorder in the court system?
Many children in the court system meet the diagnosis for conduct disorder
This indicates a significant overlap between legal issues and behavioral disorders.
What are the subtypes of conduct disorder?
Specify whether:
* Childhood-onset type (F91.1)
* Adolescent-onset type (F91.2)
* Unspecified onset (F91.9)
These subtypes help in tailoring treatment and understanding the disorder’s development.
What characteristics qualify for the specifier ‘with limited prosocial emotions’?
At least two of the following persistently over 12 months:
* Lack of remorse or guilt
* Callous—lack of empathy
* Unconcerned about performance
* Shallow or deficient affect
This specifier is associated with psychopathy traits.
True or False: Individuals with conduct disorder often feel guilt for their actions.
False
Many show a lack of remorse or guilt, aligning with psychopathic traits.
What partially controls behavior leading to conduct disorders?
Emotions
If the internal alarm system doesn’t go off, it can lead to conduct disorders.
Which onset of conduct disorder is more common?
Adolescent onset
Adolescent onset is associated with more serious problems of conduct.
What is associated with a more severe course in conduct disorder?
Childhood onset
Greater severity is observed if more extreme behaviors are present in childhood.
What is the progression from ODD to CD?
ODD -> CD -> psychopathic traits, APD
A big group meets the criteria for ODD, a subgroup meets CD criteria, and another subgroup may meet the criteria for further disorders in adulthood.
What type of approach is used to assess psychopathology?
Dimensional approach
This approach allows for a broader understanding of behavioral issues.
What is the name of the broad behavioral questionnaire used in assessment?
ASEBA
The CBCL is one version of the ASEBA given to parents.
Who can report using the behavioral questionnaire?
Parents, children, teachers
The questionnaire includes self-reports from children and reports from teachers.
What does the questionnaire start with?
Positive behaviors
This allows for comparisons to normative groups regarding behavior.
What is reactive aggression?
Aggressive behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus in the environment
An example includes a child who acts out aggressively when told no, indicating frustration.
How does reactive aggression manifest in children?
It can be impulsive behavior triggered by frustration or provocation
This impulsivity reflects the immediate reaction to environmental stimuli.
True or False: Reactive aggression is planned and premeditated.
False
Reactive aggression is impulsive and occurs in response to a stimulus, rather than being premeditated.
Fill in the blank: Reactive aggression is a behavior that is aggressive but in _______ to a stimulus in the environment.
[reaction]
What is instrumental aggression?
Use aggression as a tool in a strategic way
Instrumental aggression involves acting in a way to scare people to achieve a desired outcome, and it is employed consciously.
How does instrumental aggression differ from other forms of aggression?
It is used consciously and strategically
Unlike reactive aggression, which is impulsive, instrumental aggression is planned and goal-oriented.
Fill in the blank: Instrumental aggression involves acting in a way to _______ and get what you want.
scare people
True or False: Instrumental aggression is always impulsive.
False
Instrumental aggression is characterized by a conscious, strategic approach.
What is relational aggression?
A form of aggression characterized by harm through manipulation of relationships
Examples include ignoring, sharing personal information, teasing, rumors, gossip, exclusion, and cyberbullying.
Name three examples of relational aggression.
- Ignoring
- Teasing and put-downs
- Exclusion
What age group do the NICE guidelines focus on for parent training regarding ODD and CD?
3 to 11-year-olds
Guidelines suggest individual or group parent training (PMT) and working directly with children.
What is the focus of training for children experiencing anger according to the NICE guidelines?
Training kids to recognize their anger and engage in calming activities
The idea is to lower the intensity of emotion before discussing the issue.
What type of therapy is suggested for 11 to 17-year-olds with ODD and CD?
Multisystemic therapy
This therapy involves multiple environmental elements due to parents and teachers having less control.
What is the primary focus of multisystemic therapy?
Changing context
The approach involves various interventions tailored to the environment.
What is the purpose of one-on-one time in clinical practice?
To increase positivity in the relationship
Parents are encouraged to think about their experiences with good or bad bosses for perspective.
How can parents positively engage with their children during one-on-one time?
By pretending to be a sportscaster describing the child’s activities
This encourages positive observations rather than criticisms.
What constitutes effective praise?
Positive words that follow desired behavior
Effective praise is immediate, consistent, and specific.
Provide an example of specific praise.
“I really liked when you told me you were angry, that was very adult of you”
This contrasts with generic praise like ‘good job.’
What is ‘scorpion-praise’?
Praise that includes a criticism or negative remark afterward
Example: “Thanks for doing the dishes today, why don’t you do it more often?”
What does CBCL stand for?
Child Behavior Checklist
Parent report tool for assessing behavioral and emotional problems in children.
What does YSR stand for?
Youth Self-Report
A self-report measure used by youth to assess their own behavioral and emotional issues.
What does TRF stand for?
Teacher Report Form
A tool for teachers to report on a child’s behavior and emotional status.
What does NG refer to?
Non-referred girls
Girls who have not been referred for behavioral or emotional assessment.
What does NB refer to?
Non-referred boys
Boys who have not been referred for behavioral or emotional assessment.
What does RG refer to?
Referred girls
Girls who have been referred for behavioral or emotional assessment.
What does RB refer to?
Referred boys
Boys who have been referred for behavioral or emotional assessment.
What is executive functioning related to?
Planning, remembering sequences, staying on task and focused
How many categories of symptoms are there for ADHD?
2 categories
What is required to meet the criteria for ADHD?
At least 6 symptoms in one of the criteria
Can symptoms for ADHD be mixed between categories?
Yes, they can be mixed
What type of descriptions are ADHD symptoms?
Very behavioural descriptions
Why is it difficult to diagnose ADHD in very young children?
Symptoms are expected and typical for their age
What underlying challenges are associated with ADHD symptoms?
Challenges in executive functioning and inhibitory control
What is inhibitory control?
The ability to control one’s attention, behaviour, thoughts, and emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, allowing one to act appropriately according to the situation.
Individuals with ADHD often struggle with impulse control, making it difficult to resist distractions or act on impulse.
How do individuals with ADHD typically struggle with impulse control?
They have difficulty resisting distractions, interrupting tasks, or acting on impulse without considering the consequences.
Examples include running away when afraid or yelling when angry.
What is the relationship between emotions and inhibitory control in adults?
Adults are expected to inhibit the initial response urge that comes with a feeling, which is harder for individuals with ADHD.
Emotions can cycle through faster for those with ADHD.
Define working memory.
The capacity to hold and manipulate information in mind over short periods.
Many people with ADHD have difficulty holding and processing information, affecting their ability to follow multi-step instructions.
How can working memory challenges in ADHD be assessed?
Through standardized tests like digit span.
These tests measure the ability to remember and manipulate numbers.
What is cognitive flexibility?
The ability to switch between thinking about two different concepts or to adjust to changing demands, rules, or perspectives.
ADHD can impair this ability, leading to challenges in task switching.
What are the gender prevalence rates for ADHD in children and adults?
2:1 in children and 6:1 in adults, more frequent in males than females.
This indicates a significant difference in diagnosis rates between genders.
What percentage of children worldwide are affected by ADHD?
7.3% of children worldwide.
This statistic reflects the global prevalence of ADHD.
What is the heritability of ADHD compared to other specific learning disabilities?
ADHD has high heritability, similar to other specific learning disabilities.
This suggests a genetic component in the disorder.
How does conscientiousness relate to ADHD?
Individuals with ADHD typically have lower conscientiousness.
This may affect their ability to organize tasks and follow through on responsibilities.
At what age is it developmentally difficult to distinguish ADHD symptoms?
Before age 4.
Symptoms often start with hyperactivity/impulsivity and progress to inattention.
What kind of symptoms typically start in ADHD before age 4?
Hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms.
These early symptoms can evolve into inattention as the child develops.
What percentile range is considered the average range?
Between the 25th to the 75th percentile
What does the WIAT assess?
Things we’d assess at school
What does it mean when school achievement does not match cognitive ability (WISC)?
That’s the definition of a learning disability
In the context of ADHD, what is the difference between performance and knowledge?
Knowing what to do but having trouble implementing it
How is ADHD compared to a high-performance race car?
Like a high performance race car, but with very small brakes
What is considered a plausible and good treatment for ADHD?
Immediately going to medication
What do studies show about the effect sizes of ADHD medications?
Favorable effect sizes
What type of study is mentioned in relation to ADHD medication?
Double-blind study
Who was part of the double-blind assessment in ADHD studies?
The teachers
What happens to the effects of ADHD medication once it is no longer taken?
It wears off
What type of designs show associations between medication use and ADHD outcomes?
Correlational designs
What is a key consideration in the risk-benefit analysis for ADHD medication?
What are the other risks of using the medication
Is temperament modifiable in relation to ADHD?
No, it isn’t necessarily modifiable
What can happen when there is a shorter period of time to complete work for individuals with ADHD?
You end up being more productive
Fill in the blank: In ADHD, a child may know the rule about pushing but has a hard time _______.
Inhibiting the action in the moment
