Non-Verbal Communication Flashcards
Who looked at the functions of NVC?
Patterson 1988
What are the functions of NVC?
▪ To provide information to others
▪ To regulate interaction (e.g. turn-taking)
▪ To express intimacy (e.g. liking)
▪ To attempt to exert social control
▪ Presentation
▪ Affect management
▪ Facilitating service or task goals
Who looked at the parallel processing model of NVC?
Patterson 1995, 1998, 2001
What are the 4 classes of factors?
Determinants (biology, culture, gender,
personality)
Social environment (partner, setting)
Cognitive-affective mediators
(expectancies, goals, dispositions,
cognitive resources, attention focus,
schemas)
Person-perception and behavioural
processes (impression formation, actor
behaviour)
How many automatic judgement based?
Biologically
Who looked at NVC not being a language?
Patterson, Fridlund & Crivelli 2023
What did P,F +C say about words?
Words have fairly invariant meanings, but not NVC
What did P,F +C say about language?
Language has order and context rules – syntax
Who looked at EEGs and imagery studies?
Corballis 2014
What did Corballis 2014 find?
Left hemisphere for verbal
tasks, right for NVC
What effect does the physical environment have NVC?
The physical environment impacts NVC more, both
physically and via social norms and dictates that NVC “meanings” are not universal
What are the characteristics of NVC?
NVC is “always on”
In NVC cues can be sent and received concurrently
NVC often occurs outside our awareness
What are the channels of NVC?
▪ Facial expression
▪ Gaze and pupil dilation
▪ Gestures, body movements and posture
▪ Touch/bodily contact
▪ Spatial behaviour (‘proxemics’)
▪ Clothing
▪ Non-linguistic aspects of speech
▪ Smell (e.g. use of perfumes)
What effects NVCs?
Some clinical disturbances affect non-verbal encoding
and decoding (e.g. Schizophrenia, ASD)
What are the gender differences of NVC?
Women are more sensitive to non-verbal cues
and decode them more accurately than men
Who looked at gender differences?
Hall 1979
What did Hall 1979 find?
Strong cross-cultural evidence for women beibg more sensitive to non verbal cues
How does age affect NVC?
The older we get the worse we get at decoding nonverbal cues
Older individuals (e.g. aged 70+) are worse at lying and
at detecting deception
Who looked at training?
Matusumoto & Hwang 2011
What did Matsumoto & Hwang 2011 find?
Training can improve sensitivity
What effect does space have?
Conveys like and dislike
Who looked at space?
Kane 1971
What did Kane 1971 find?
Space can convey power and control, violent prisoners and personal space
What did Patterson, Fridlund & Crivelli 2023 find?
Argues that personal space is not an invariant zone
(strangers vs friends vs romantic partners), they argue that interpersonal closeness is negotiated
Who looked at comfort and spatial channel?
Hall 1966
What did Hall 1966 find?
In different settings we are
comfortable with different distances
How is touch linked?
Extremely powerful – linked with emotion and relationships
Who looked at touch?
Gueguen (2007)
Fisher et al 1976
What did Gueguen (2007) find?
Romantic song in nightclub
Light touch on arm =perceived dominance and sexual attractiveness of man
What did Fisher et al (1976) find?
Greater liking for librarian and library if touched on hand by librarian
But only female Ps affected.
Who looked at touch and personality?
Chaplin et al (2000)
What did Chaplin et al (2000) find?
112 US undergrads
Firm handshakes associated with extraversion, emotional expressiveness,
negatively to shyness and neuroticism
Found a .56 correlation
between composite first impression rating (positivity) and firmness of handshake for M & F PPs and M and F targets
How is facial expression as a channel?
Important for conveying emotion
Who looked at facial expression as a channel?
Ekman et al (1972)
Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1972)
What did Ekman et al find?
Happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, disgust -
expressed the same throughout the world
What did Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1972) find?
People born deaf and blind show many of the basic facial expressions
What are the gender differences in facial expressions?
Women attend to faces
Who looked at emotional intelligence?
Haggard & Issacs (1966)
What did Haggard & Issacs (1966) find?
Recognising emotion is apparently part of emotional intelligence
Who looked at body posture?
Taubert et al 2022
What did Taubert et al (2022) find?
Body posture also used to process meaning of facial expressions
Neuroscience evidence of body-selective brain regions, even in macaque
monkeys, triggered by images of scared humans and cats as well as monkeys
Who looked at horses?
McComb et al 2018
What did McComb et al 2018 find?
Horses heartbeats increase when shown an image of an angry human face
Who found problems with methodology on emotion recognition?
Patterson, Fridlund & Crivelli 2023
What did Bavelas (2007) say about facial expression?
Many faces taken as expressions of emotions are actually paralinguistic forms of social judgment and appraisal
What are the characteristics of gaze?
Very powerful and often automatic
Observers pay much attention to eyes
Sometimes a ‘leaky’ channel
Who looked at gaze?
Hall et al (2005)
Exline & Yellin (1969)
Wirth et al (2010)
What did Hall et al 2005 find?
Gaze can be used to exert dominance
What did Exline & Yellin (1969) find?
Gaze as a threat signal
What did Wirth et al (2010) find?
Gaze aversion is often perceived negatively in interactions
Who looked at culture and NVC?
Argyle (1975)
Matsumoto (1992)
Masuda et al (2008)
What did Argyle (1975) find?
‘Display rules’ differ cross-culturally
What did Matsumoto (1992) do and find?
Compared U.S. and Japanese participants on recognition of 6 emotions
Americans were better at identifying anger, disgust, fear and sadness
No differences on happiness and surprise
What did Masuda et al (2008) find?
Japanese look at expressions of others in the social context more than Americans when decoding facial expressions
How is NVC complex?
The same non-verbal acts can mean different things in different situations
We need to understand and appreciate the context of communication
Who looked at the influence of setting and role?
Rozelle et al (1975)
What did Rozelle et al (1975) find?
Behavior is strongly influenced by both setting and role expectations.
Participants were more likely to conform to social norms and present themselves more favorably in public settings versus private ones.
When placed in authoritative roles (e.g., a “teacher” role), participants were more likely to act confidently and assertively, regardless of their personal traits.
The study suggested that external context (setting) and socially assigned roles can override internal dispositions, meaning people adapt their behavior dramatically based on how they are being perceive
Who did a meta analysis on interviews?
Martin-Raugh et al (2022)
What did Martin-Raugh et al (2022) find?
Meta analysis of 63 studies
interviewers rely on system 1 processing, quick, intuitive
Cues associated most strongly with interview performance were professional appearance (ρ = .62), eye contact (ρ = .45),
and head movement (ρ = .43);
Some gender differences moderated effects.
Who looked at non-verbal enthusiasm?
Washburn & Hakel (1973)
Keenan (1976)
What did Washburn & Hakel (1973) find?
Gazing, gesturing, smiling in an interview
What did Keenan (1976) find?
Non-verbal approval is reflected in the interviewee
Who looked at detecting lies?
DePaulo et al (1985)
Ekman & O’Sullivan (1991)
What did DePaulo et al (1985) find?
Even when we are correct, we can’t tell what the truth is
What did Ekman & O’Sullivan (1991) find?
Most of us perform no better than chance at
detecting lies
Who looked at the leakage hierarchy?
Ekman & Friesen (1969)
What did Ekman & Friesen (1969) find?
Face least ‘leaky’, body and vocal cues most ‘leaky’
Who looked at gender differences in detecting lies?
Rosenthal & DePaulo (1979)
What did Rosenthal & DePaulo (1979) find?
Women are worse at detecting lies than men!
Who looked at cultural differences for Rosenthal & DePaulo?
Hall (1979)
What did Hall (1979) find?
Not in all cultures that women are worse at detecting lies than men
Who looked at situational constraints?
Morris (1982)
What did Morris (1982) find?
Lying is easier when available cues for observers are reduced
Give-aways of lying include: hand to face contacts; body shifts; ‘microexpressions’
But the same signs can indicate stress, discomfort, etc…
Who looked at individual differences for lies?
Bond & DePaulo (2008)
What did Bond & DePaulo (2008) find?
No evidence for individual differences in lie detection
ability; analysis of >200 studies suggested humans no better than chance at lie
detection
What did Vrij & Semin (1996) find?
75% of professional lie detectors (police officers, customs officers and so on) believe that liars look away,
Who looked at gaze aversion?
DePaulo et al (1985)
What did DePaulo et al (1985) find?
Gaze aversion has not been found to be a reliable indicator of deception
What occurs to liars?
DePaulo et al (1988)
Liars may experience high levels of emotion and
cognitive load and these may be detectable, this may
be why high stake lies are easier to detect
What study did Vrij et al do?
Ps watched a film of a theft in a hospital and some
asked to tell truth about it, others to lie. High cognitive
load because liars had to devise their lies immediately
after seeing the film
Their verbal content and body language was coded by observers
What were the findings of Vrij et al?
High cognitive load is associated with: a longer latency period, more ‘ah’ and ‘non-ah’ speech disturbances, a slower speech rate and fewer illustrators and hand/finger movements
Accuracy WAS higher than chance
But Vrij et al (2019) later conclude that evidence for NV cues of deception has very small effect sizes and cues can actually be associated with stress
What did ten Brinke & Porter (2012) do?
Videos of 78 (35 deceptive) individuals who made televised pleas for the safe return (or information leading to the arrest of an unknown suspect in the murder) of their relative were gathered from news agencies in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States
Compared genuine versus deceptive pleas
Strong evidence for Conviction – e.g. forensics
What are the findings from ten Brinke & Porter (2012)?
Deceptive murderers:
were more likely to express disgust and less likely to express sadness than genuine pleaders
Use more tentative language and fewer words
Expressed upper face surprise and lower face happiness
Blinked nearly twice as quickly as genuinely distressed individuals but showed no difference in direct gaze duration
Micro expressions occurred rarely and could not be used to distinguish truthful and deceptive interviews
Who looked at beliefs about deception?
Bogaard et al 2016
What did Bogaard et al say? (Key points)
Research shows, however, that gaze aversion is not a sign of deceit’ p.2
Support found that liars ‘include less perceptual…spatial…temporal information’ p.3
There is a tendency among both groups to prioritise nonverbal cues over verbal ones when assessing truthfulness
Both students and police officers commonly believe that certain nonverbal behaviours, such as gaze aversion and increased movement, are indicative of deception
What effect do facial features have?
They determine favourability and impressions of the person’s personality
Who looked at facial features?
Bar-on 2005
What did Bar-on find?
First impressions are formed in a short time and are consistent with the info they receive in the first 39MS of meeting, triats on if they are in danger are formed faster
What are the gender differences with facial features?
Women have a tendency to ‘judge trustworthy-looking faces as significantly more trustworthy than men do’
Who looked at eyes?
Calvo 2012
What did Calvo find?
Happy eyes were recognised in a more friendly way compared to sad or angry eyes’ p.5 + response rate was lower when the mouth and eyes aren’t matching
What are Duchenne smiles?
Genuine, involves raised lip corners and action in the face (wrinkles at the outer corners of the eyes),
What are non-Duchenne smiles?
Only the mouth movement
Who looked at non-Duchenne smiles?
Ekman et al 1980
What did Ekman et al find?
They show no reliable relationship to positive feelings
What effect does smiling have in interviews?
Reduces the uncertainty reduction theory and increases comfort in interview settings
Who looked at the relationship with gender and smiling?
Cortez et al 2017
What did Cortez et al find?
Gender expectations at play that women have to be ‘communal and expressive than men but also more cooperative, kind to others and protective of social harmony’
Who looked at NVC and hireability?
Cortez et al 2017
What are the key points from Cortez et al discussion?
Eye contact is important in interviews
Eye contact depends on culture
Smiling; ¾ apps agree
Uncertainty reduction theory plays a role as a smile reduces the uncertainty
Facial expressions are important
What is Cortez et al (2017) advice for future research?
Focus on interviewing
Data collection on outliers “one applicants stated her belief that eye contact was valued more by the older generation than the younger ones;
