Non Metals 2 Flashcards
Le Chatelier’s Principle
States that if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to counteract the change to reestablish an equilibrium.
Contact Process
The industrial process for producing sulfuric acid, involving the catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.
Ostwald Process
A chemical process used for the industrial production of nitric acid ($HNO_3$).
Nitrogen(II) Oxide Oxidation Equation
$2NO(g) + O_2(g) \rightarrow 2NO_2(g)$
Nitrogen(IV) Oxide Absorption Equation
$3NO_2(g) + H_2O(l) \rightarrow 2HNO_3(aq) + NO(g)$
Overall Equation for Nitric Acid Production
$4NH_3(g) + 8O_2(g) \rightarrow 4HNO_3(aq) + 4H_2O(g)$
Contact Process Temperature
450°C
Contact Process Pressure
2 atm
Ostwald Process Temperature
900°C
Ostwald Process Pressure
4 atm
Haber-Bosch Process Temperature
450°C
Haber-Bosch Process Pressure
200-1000 atm
Equilibrium
A state where the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of reverse reaction.
Le Chatelier’s Principle Application
Predicting shift in equilibrium with changing conditions.
Phosphorus Occurrence
Never found free in nature
Phosphorus Sources
Phosphate rock, bones
Phosphorus Extraction
Heating calcium phosphate with sand and coke
Phosphorus Extraction Equation
$Ca_3(PO_4)_2 + 3SiO_2 + 5C \rightarrow 3CaSiO_3 + 2P + 5CO$
Phosphorus Allotropes
White phosphorus, red phosphorus
White Phosphorus Properties
Yellowish-white solid, soft, waxy, poisonous
White Phosphorus Reactivity
Very reactive, ignites spontaneously in air
White Phosphorus Storage
Under water
White Phosphorus Use
Manufacture of rat poison
Red Phosphorus Properties
Red solid, non-poisonous
Red Phosphorus Reactivity
Less reactive, does not ignite in air
Red Phosphorus Use
Safety matches
Phosphorus Reaction with Oxygen
Burns vigorously in oxygen to form phosphorus(V) oxide
Phosphorus + Oxygen Equation
$P_4 + 5O_2 \rightarrow P_4O_{10}$
Phosphorus(V) Oxide Formula
$P_4O_{10}$
Phosphorus(V) Oxide Common Name
Phosphorus pentoxide
Phosphorus(V) Oxide Property
Strong affinity for water
Phosphorus(V) Oxide Use
Drying agent
Phosphorus(V) Oxide + Water Product
Phosphoric acid
Phosphorus(V) Oxide + Water Equation
$P_4O_{10} + 6H_2O \rightarrow 4H_3PO_4$
Phosphorus Halides
$PCl_3, PCl_5$
Phosphorus Halide Formation
Direct combination with chlorine
Phosphorus Halide Reaction with Water
Hydrolyzed to hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid
Phosphoric Acid Formula
$H_3PO_4$
Phosphoric Acid Preparation
Reaction of phosphorus(V) oxide with water
Phosphoric Acid Properties
Colorless crystals, soluble in water
Phosphoric Acid Uses
Fertilizers, detergents, food additive
Phosphorus in Fertilizers
Essential nutrient for plant growth
Phosphorus Role in Plants
Root development, fruit and seed formation
Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms
Stunted growth, poor flowering
Phosphorus Toxicity
Rare, can interfere with micronutrient uptake
Eutrophication Cause (Phosphorus)
Excessive phosphorus runoff from fertilizers
Environmental Impact of Phosphorus
“Algal blooms, oxygen depletion in water bodies
“Phosphorus Cycle”,”The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the Earth’s ecosystems.”
“Phosphorus Cycle Importance”,”Essential for DNA
Phosphorus Reservoir
Rocks and sediments.
Weathering
Releases phosphate ions from rocks.
Uptake by Plants
Plants absorb phosphate ions from soil.
Transfer to Animals
Animals obtain phosphorus by eating plants.
Decomposition (Phosphorus)
Returns phosphorus to the soil.
Runoff
Carries phosphorus to aquatic ecosystems.
Sedimentation
Phosphorus accumulates in sediments.
Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle
Mining, fertilizers, deforestation.
Oxygen Discovery
Priestley and Scheele (independently, ~1774)
Priestley’s Oxygen Preparation
Heating mercury(II) oxide ($HgO$)
Priestley’s Equation
$2HgO(s) \xrightarrow{heat} 2Hg(l) + O_2(g)$
Scheele’s Oxygen Preparation
Heating metal nitrates, carbonates, and oxides
Lavoisier’s Oxygen Experiment
Heating mercury in air
Lavoisier’s Conclusion
Air is a mixture, oxygen supports combustion
Occurrence of Oxygen in Air
About 21% by volume
Occurrence of Oxygen in Earth’s Crust
Most abundant element
Occurrence of Oxygen in Water
Major component
Occurrence of Oxygen in Living Organisms
Essential for respiration
Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide ($H_2O_2$)
Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition Equation
$2H_2O_2(aq) \xrightarrow{MnO_2} 2H_2O(l) + O_2(g)$
Catalyst for Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition
Manganese(IV) oxide ($MnO_2$)
Alternative Oxygen Preparation
Decomposition of sodium peroxide ($Na_2O_2$) with water
Sodium Peroxide + Water Equation
$2Na_2O_2(s) + 2H_2O(l) \rightarrow 4NaOH(aq) + O_2(g)$
Oxygen Preparation (Large Scale)
Fractional distillation of liquid air
Fractional Distillation of Liquid Air Process
Air is liquefied, then distilled based on boiling points
Nitrogen Boiling Point
-196°C
Oxygen Boiling Point
-183°C
Oxygen Collection (Fractional Distillation)
Collected as liquid or gas
Oxygen Physical State
Gas
Oxygen Color
Colorless
Oxygen Odor
Odorless
Oxygen Taste
Tasteless
Oxygen Solubility in Water
Slightly soluble
Oxygen Density
Slightly denser than air
Oxygen Effect on Litmus Paper
Neutral
Oxygen’s Crucial Role
Supports combustion and respiration
Oxygen’s Ability to Combine
Combines directly with most elements (except noble gases)
Oxygen + Metals Product
Basic oxides
Oxygen + Non-metals Product
Acidic oxides
Oxygen + Hydrocarbons Product
Carbon dioxide and water
Oxygen’s Role in Combustion
Supports burning, oxidizes substances
Oxygen’s Role in Respiration
Essential for energy release in living cells
Test for Oxygen
Relights a glowing splint
Glowing Splint
A splint that has been lit and then blown out, leaving an ember
Oxygen Oxidation States
-2 (most common), -1 (peroxides), -½ (superoxides), 0 (in O2), +2 (with fluorine)
Ozone Formula
O3
Ozone Formation
Electrical discharge through oxygen
Ozone Layer Function
Absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere
Oxides
Compounds containing oxygen and another element.
Oxide Formation
Direct combination of elements with oxygen.
Oxide Classification
Acidic, basic, amphoteric, neutral.
Acidic Oxides
Oxides of non-metals (e.g., $CO_2, SO_2, N_2O_5$).
Acidic Oxides Reaction with Water
Form acids.
Basic Oxides
Oxides of metals (e.g., $Na_2O, CaO, MgO$).
Basic Oxides Reaction with Water
Form alkalis.
Amphoteric Oxides
Oxides that show both acidic and basic properties (e.g., $Al_2O_3, ZnO$).
Amphoteric Oxides Reaction
React with both acids and alkalis to form salts and water.
Neutral Oxides
“Oxides that show neither acidic nor basic properties (e.g., $CO, NO, H_2O$)
“Combustion”,”A chemical process involving rapid reaction between a substance with an oxidant
Combustible Substance
A substance that can undergo combustion (burn).
Oxidant
A substance that supports combustion (e.g., oxygen).”Ignition Temperature
Heat of Combustion
The amount of heat released during the complete combustion of a specified amount of a substance.
Complete Combustion Products
Carbon dioxide and water (if the substance contains carbon and hydrogen).
Incomplete Combustion Products
Carbon monoxide and water (due to limited oxygen supply).
Factors Affecting Combustion
Availability of oxygen surfacearea of combustible material.
Uses of Combustion
Power generation, heating, industrial processes.
Safety Precautions (Combustion)
“Control of flammable materials, ventilation, fire extinguishers.
“Sulphur Occurrence”,”Found in both free and combined states.”
“Free Sulphur Deposits”,”Volcanic regions (e.g.
Combined Sulphur Forms
Sulphides (e.g., iron pyrite - $FeS_2$), sulphates (e.g., gypsum - $CaSO_4.2H_2O$).
Extraction of Sulphur (Frasch Process)
Used for underground deposits.
Frasch Process Method
Superheated water, compressed air pumped down concentric pipes to melt and lift sulfur.
Sulphur Allotropes
Rhombic sulphur, monoclinic sulphur, plastic sulphur.
Rhombic Sulphur
Yellow, crystalline solid, stable at room temperature.
Monoclinic Sulphur
Prismatic crystals, stable above 95.5°C.
Plastic Sulphur
Amorphous, elastic material, formed by rapid cooling of molten sulphur.
Sulphur Dioxide Formula
$SO_2$
Sulphur Dioxide Preparation (Lab)
Reaction of a sulphite with a dilute acid.
Sodium Sulphite + HCl Equation
$Na_2SO_3(s) + 2HCl(aq) \rightarrow 2NaCl(aq) + H_2O(l) + SO_2(g)$
Sulphur Dioxide Properties
Colorless gas, pungent choking smell, denser than air.
Test for Sulphur Dioxide
Turns acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution from orange to green.
Test Equation
“$Cr_2O_7^{2-}(aq) + 14H^+(aq) + 3SO_2(g) \rightarrow 2Cr^{3+}(aq) + 7H_2O(l) + 3SO_4^{2-}(aq
“Sulphur Dioxide Uses”,”Manufacture of sulphuric acid
Sulphur Trioxide Formula
$SO_3$
Sulphur Trioxide Preparation (Industrial)
Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide (Contact Process).
Contact Process Catalyst
Vanadium(V) oxide ($V_2O_5$).
Sulphur Trioxide Properties
Colorless liquid or solid, fumes strongly in moist air.
Sulphur Trioxide Reaction with Water
Forms sulphuric acid ($H_2SO_4$).
Sulphuric Acid Formula
$H_2SO_4$
Sulphuric Acid Preparation (Industrial)
Contact Process.
Sulphuric Acid Properties
Colorless, oily liquid, very corrosive, strong dehydrating agent.
Dilute Sulphuric Acid Properties
Typical acid properties.
Concentrated Sulphuric Acid Properties
Strong dehydrating and oxidizing agent.
Test for Sulphate Ion
$SO_4^{2-}$
Test Equation
“$Ba^{2+}(aq) + SO_4^{2-}(aq) \rightarrow BaSO_4(
“Uses of Sulphuric Acid”,”Manufacture of fertilizers
Sulphur Cycle
The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of sulfur through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
Sulphur Sources in the Cycle
Volcanic emissions, weathering of rocks, decomposition of organic matter.
Sulphur in the Atmosphere
Sulphur dioxide ($SO_2$), hydrogen sulphide ($H_2S$), sulphate aerosols.
Acid Rain Formation
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolve in atmospheric water to form acids.
Effects of Acid Rain
Damage to buildings, forests, aquatic life.
Reduction of Sulphur Emissions
Use of low-sulphur fuels, flue gas desulphurization.
Hydrogen Sulphide Formula
$H_2S$
Hydrogen Sulphide Preparation
Reaction of a metal sulphide with a dilute acid.
Iron(II) Sulphide + HCl Equation
$FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) \rightarrow FeCl_2(aq) + H_2S(g)$
Hydrogen Sulphide Properties
Colorless gas, characteristic foul odor (rotten eggs), poisonous.
Test for Hydrogen Sulphide
Turns lead(II) ethanoate paper black.
Test Equation
“$Pb^{2+}(aq) + S^{2-}(aq) \rightarrow PbS(s
“Silicon Occurrence”,”Second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust (after oxygen).”
“Silicon Sources”,”Silica ($SiO_2$)
Silicon Properties
Metalloid, semiconductor, exists in crystalline and amorphous forms.
Silicon Uses
Electronics (semiconductors), glass, ceramics, polymers (silicones).
Germanium Occurrence
Found in trace amounts in some ores.
Germanium Properties
Metalloid, semiconductor.
Germanium Uses
Electronics (transistors, semiconductors), infrared optics.
Boron Occurrence
Found in borax and other borate minerals.
Boron Properties
Non-metal, hard, high melting point.
Boron Uses
“Glass industry (borosilicate glass), ceramics, detergents.
“Metalloids Bonding”,”Can form covalent bonds with other non-metals and themselves.”
“Metalloids Oxide Nature”,”Often amphoteric (can react with both acids and bases).”
“Metalloids Conductivity”,”Semiconductors - their electrical conductivity is between that of conductors and insulators.”
“Semiconductors Application”,”Essential components in electronic devices like transistors and integrated circuits.”
“Importance of Non-metals and Metalloids”,”Fundamental building blocks of life
Environmental Impact of Non-metals
Can contribute to pollution (e.g., sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides), but also play vital roles in environmental cycles (e.g., nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle).
Sustainable Use of Non-metals
“Recycling, reducing emissions, developing environmentally friendly alternatives
