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AP Psychology > Non-Experimental Methods Lesson > Flashcards

Non-Experimental Methods Lesson Flashcards

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1
Q

In psychology, researchers use various methods to study _____ and explore different _____

A

behavior and events

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2
Q

There are _ categories of Research. ____________, _____________and _____________

A

There are 3 categories of Research. Descriptive, Correlational and Experimental

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3
Q

There are _ categories of Research. Descriptive Research is research done on interesting cases that ______ it and then is later shared with others. Descriptive Research doesn’t look for __________

A

There are 3 categories of Research. Descriptive Research is research done on interesting cases that DESCRIBED it and then is later shared with others. Descriptive Research doesn’t look for CORRELATIONS

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4
Q

Some ways to carry out Correlational Research are _________ and sometimes ____________ ____________

A

SURVEYS and sometimes NATURALISIC OBSERVATION

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5
Q

Some examples of Descriptive research are ____ _______ and sometimes ___________ ___________

A

Some examples of Descriptive research are CASE STUDIES and sometimes NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS

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6
Q

Descriptive Statistics does what:

A

Describes your data from the experiment.

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7
Q

Different diagrams that can be used to display Descriptive Statistics are

A

Frequency Distributions, frequeny polygons or histograms

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8
Q

Correlational Research looks for ___________ or relationships between variables.

A

CORRELATION

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9
Q

Someways correlational research is performed are by using_________ and sometimes ____________ __________

A

Someways correlational research is performed are by using SURVEYS and sometimes NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS

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10
Q

The third type of Research is Experimental Research. It explores ________

A

CAUSATION

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11
Q

Expiremental Research looks to prove causal relationships. Casual means ______

A

Something that causes something else to happen (CAUSE AND EFFECT)

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12
Q
A
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13
Q

Non-experimental methods, such as_____,______, _____ and _______ are used to gather research

A

case studies, meta analysis naturalistic observations, and surveys

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14
Q

An observation technique where a few/one individuals are studied in depth, by describing their behavior in the hope of revealing things that can apply to to larger groups

A
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15
Q

An observation technique where a few/one individuals are studied in depth, by describing their behavior in the hope of revealing things that can apply to to larger groups

A
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16
Q

________ are one of oldest types of research methods in psychology

A

Case Studies

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17
Q

Case studies might not be generalizable because

A

Can be misleading if the individual is atypical

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18
Q

Case Studies don’t show how variables are _____ to one another
Usually don’t have an initial _____ attached to them
Doesn’t show causation of ____ (what caused behavior to happen) but can be used to generate a hypothesis that can later be tested experimentally

A

Doesn’t show how variables are related to one another (corrolational)
Usually Don’t have an intial hypothesis attached to them
Doesn’t show causation of behavior(what caused behavior to happen) but can be used to generate a hypothesis that can later be tested experimentally

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19
Q

Famous case studies: Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury in 1848. This case study provided valuable understand into the _______

A

This case study provided valuable insights into the relationship between the brain and behavior, revealing the importance of the frontal lobe in personality and decision-making.

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20
Q

Famous Case Studies: The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, demonstrated classical conditioning in a young child. Remains a classic example of ____

A

This case study is famous for its ethical concerns but remains a classic example of behaviorism in psychology.

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21
Q

Famous Case Studies:
Genie was a young girl who was severely neglected and abused, leading to a lack of social and linguistic development. This case study highlighted the ______

A

highlighted the critical period hypothesis in language acquisition and the effects of isolation on human development.

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22
Q

Famous Case Studies: HM (Henry Molaison) was a patient who underwent brain surgery to treat epilepsy and subsequently experienced severe amnesia. This case study revolutionized our understanding

A

of memory and the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories.

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23
Q

They can provide valuable ____ and suggest new ______ ideas, but unusual cases might lead to wrong conclusions. Biased information can ____ ______ Personal stories in case studies grab our attention, but we need other research methods to find broader truths.

A

understanding, research ideas, distort results

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24
Q

Clinical psychologists use case studies to create _______ profiles of clients, giving them a _____ understanding of individuals or small groups. However, case studies may be ______, since each case is unique.

A

detailed, deep understanding, generalizable

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25
Q

Naturalistic Observation: Watching and recording the _____ behavior of _____ individuals, ______. Researchers are ____ influencing results. CAN NOT prove ____ ___ _____

A

natural, many, secretly, NOT , cause and effect

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26
Q

Naturalistic Observation usually done in recording or very discretely

A
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27
Q

What kind of research method is the following? Ex: If a student wanted to observe how many people fully stop at a stop sign, they could watch the cars from a distance and record their data.

A

Naturalistic Observation

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28
Q

Purpose of Naturalistic Observation

A

Naturalistic observation involves recording responses in natural settings to identify purposes, strengths, and limitations. & provides valuable insights into behavior

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29
Q

Naturalistic Observation provides insights into behavior but does NOT ______ behavior but acually _______ behavior, just like in case studies. This method uncovers _____ contributing to a deeper understanding of cognition, communication, and social interactions.

A

Explain, Describes patterns

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30
Q

Advantage of Naturalistic Observation: By capturing behaviors in their authentic environments, researchers can gather data that may not be ____ measurable through experimental procedures

A

ethically

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31
Q

Surveys - Asking people questions, asking people to record their behavior & opinions. Looks at many cases in less depth. Allows data from large groups to be collected efficently
Most common type of study
Measures correlation (relationship between variables)

A
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32
Q

Con of Surveys
Framing/Wording Effects means

A

The way you word question affects the way people respond

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33
Q

Random Sampling is the best way make sure your conclusions are _______

A

generalizable

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34
Q

Meta Analysis: Involves analyzing and ____ data from multiple studies to draw more reliable conclusions

A

Meta Analysis: Involves analyzing and COMBINING data from multiple studies to draw more reliable conclusions

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35
Q

Meta Analysis: By combining multiple studies researchers can identify _____ and ____ that may not be apparent in individual studies

A

By combining multiple studies researchers can identify PATTERNS and RELATIONSHIPS that may not be apparent in individual studies

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36
Q

If you don’t random sample you could fall victim to Sampling Bias

A

Flawed sampling process that lead to a sample that doesn’t represent the population

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37
Q

Theory - A generalized idea that explains _______ or _____ by offering ideas that organize what he have observed

A

Explains BEHAVIORS or EVENTS by offering ideas that organize what he have observed

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38
Q

Convenience Sampling definition:

A

Collecting research from a group that is easy to access

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39
Q

Convenience Sampling is biased

True or False

A

True

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40
Q

Population definition:

A

The entire group you need to study

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41
Q

Cons of Surveys
Social-Desirability Bias means:

A

Answering in a way that will please the researcher

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42
Q

Cons of Surveys
Self-Report Bias means:

A

When people don’t accurately report or remember their behaviors

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43
Q

Cons of Surveys
Social-Report Bias

Example : Asking about academic integrity ppl might not want to acknowledge they are even if it was anonymous

A
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44
Q

In Survey is crucial that the sample is ________ of the population being studied, achieved through ______ ______ methods such as drawing names or using random number generators.

A

representative, random sampling

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45
Q

Cons of Surveys

Low Response Rates - (The ppl who respond don’t represent population well)
Wording Effects (The way you word question affects the way people respond)

A
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46
Q

Random Sampling used to find a ______ representative of the population, in which every person in the population had as equal chance of being part of the sample. Larger samples are typically less ____. But a smaller unbiased sample would be more ______ than a large biased sample.

A

sample, biased, more valuable

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47
Q

Samples used in surveys MUST be achieved through ______ ______

A

random sampling

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48
Q

Theory - A generalized idea that explains _______ or _____ by offering ideas that organize what he have observed

A

Explains BEHAVIORS or EVENTS by offering ideas that organize what he have observed

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49
Q

Theories can BIAS our ________

A

Observations

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50
Q

This is an example of what: Better memory springs from more sleep

A

Theory

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51
Q

From a theory a hypothesis is created

A
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52
Q

Easiest way to create a hypothesis is to make a if then statement

A

Examples of Hypothesis:
If sleep improves memory improves

If a person is sleep deprives they’ll remember less

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53
Q

Falsifiability

A

The ability to prove a hypothesis, theory or idea can be proven wrong

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54
Q

Hypothesis, Theories and Scientific Ideas must be Falsifiable, this means that the hypothesis ____ be proven wrong. They also must be able to be ______ or ________

A

this means that the hypothesis CAN be proven wrong. They also must be able to be tested or measured

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55
Q

This is an example of ?
Having theorized that better memory comes from more sleep, we may see what me expect: We may perceive sleepy people’s comments as less insightful

A

This is an example of theories biasing our observations

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56
Q

Theory: Sleep improves memory
_______: When people are sleep deprived they will remember less from the day before

A

Hypothesis

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57
Q

When going through the scientific method peer review is used

A
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58
Q

Peer Review - Once a person has gotten a theory, hypothesis research, and written article other qualified researchers review your article _____, _____, and _____

A

Peer Review - Once a person has gotten a theory, hypothesis research, and written article other qualified researchers review your article theory, originality and accuracy

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59
Q

Two Types of Research Methods are __________ and ________

A

Correlation and Experimental

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60
Q

Correlation measures the extent to which variables may vary together and thus how much they _______ each other

A

Correlation measures the extent to which variables may vary together and thus how much they INFLUENCE each other

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61
Q

Variable: Anything that can ___ and is ____ & ____ to measure

A

Variable: Anything that can VARY and is FEASIBLE & ETHICAL to measure

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62
Q

Journal editors use ____ reviews to decide if research should be publicized

A

Journal editors use PEER reviews to decide if research should be publicized

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63
Q

Operational definition: term that is used to ______ the procedure of a study and the research variables

A

describe

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64
Q

Example of an _________ _________: Defining “anxiety” as a measurable increase in heart rate when exposed to a stressful situation

A

Example of an OPERATIONAL DEFINITON

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65
Q

Defining variables is known as ___________.

A

OPERATIONALIZING

66
Q

Experimental studies must be able to be replicated in order to test ______

A

Hypotheses

67
Q

The purpose of an ________ _______ is so that another psychologist could clearly replicate the same study & so others understand how the psychologist investigated the research question

A

Operational Definition

68
Q

Operational Definitions are needed in Psychology because most of the time human behavior is being measured (which is hard to measure) so you must explain how these things will be measured so people understand what we’re looking for.

A
69
Q

This is how to operationalizing Ex: Chocolate can cause violent behavior? You must ________ chocolate and violence. What kind of chocolate, how much? What is violence? Do you have to make them bleed, etc.


A

Operationalizing

70
Q

Ex: Operationalizing Happiness in a study about Happiness

A

Operational Definition of Happiness: Participants rating how happy they are from 1 (most unhappy) -10(most happy)

71
Q

Best way to know if your research is valid is if others get ____ results

A

similar

72
Q

Operationalizing definitions allow for other researchers to test your hypothesis and replicate the study

A
73
Q

Is is important to operalationize ALL variables

A
74
Q

Two Types of Research Methods are __________ and ________

A

Correlation and Experimental

75
Q

Correlation finds relationship between already present ______. Looks at things that you can’t experiment on or put in a lab, either because it is ______ or ______.

A

Correlation finds relationship between already present variables. Looks at things that you can’t experiment on or put in a lab, either because it is IMPRACTICAL or UNETHICAL

76
Q

Correlation does ____ imply causation because there might be other variables affecting the variables. But shows relationships/correlations

A

Correlation does NOT imply causation

77
Q

EX: If the focus is Women who vape during pregnancy you can’t do an experiment because it is unethical therefore correlational studies are used

A

Ask do you vape, how many times a day, are you pregnant and see health implication on babies

78
Q

Experimental - A study carried out under controlled conditions where variables are manipulated in order to discover an unknown effect or to test or establish a hypothesis

A
79
Q

Quasi-Experiments definition:

A

Quasi-experiments are research designs that allow researchers to evaluate the effects of treatment without random assignment to groups. Researchers take advantage of naturally occurring differences in groups to study the effects of variables.

80
Q
A
81
Q

Purpose of Quasi-Experiments

A

Quasi-experiments are often conducted in natural settings, allowing researchers to study interventions in more realistic environments (e.g., schools, hospitals, or communities

In situations where random assignment could pose ethical issues (e.g., assigning individuals to potentially harmful conditions)

Researchers may face practical limitations that make random assignment difficult, such as logistical challenges, resource constraints, or the nature of the groups being studied (e.g., existing classes in a school)

82
Q

Cons of Quasi-Experiments

A

More exposure to confounding variables which threatens validity of experiment and Selection Bias(differences between groups could influence the outcomes)

Also doesn’t give as much control as true experiment

83
Q

Quasi-experiments are valuable in situations where random assignment is not feasible, such as studying the impact of trauma on individuals.

Why is Random Assignment not feasible

A

Ethics

84
Q

Independent Variable: Used in experiments, the factor that is being ______. This is the _____

A

MANIPULATED, CAUSE

85
Q

Dependent Variable:
Used in experiments, the factor whose outcome is ________. This is the ____

A

MEASURED, EFFECT

86
Q

Confounding Variable

A

An outside variable, that you aren’t trying to measure or test that may skew the results

87
Q

Confounding variables can make it hard to ________ the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables, making it difficult to determine if the observed effects are due to the independent variable or the confounding variable.

A

Can make it hard to UNDERSTAND the true relationship

88
Q

Cons of Experimental: Not always can be done because it would be unethical or impractical

A
89
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which a test, measurement, or research study accurately measures what it claims to measure. It tells us whether the results are accurate and meaningful.

90
Q

To maintain an experiment’s validity must be wary of ____________ ________ and use

A

To maintain an experiment’s validity must be wary of CONFOUNDING VARIABLES and use RANDOM ASSIGNMENT & precise OPERATIONAL DEFINITONS

91
Q

Reliability

A

An experiment is reliable when it always gives the same answer

92
Q

The goal is to have an experiment that is both valid and reliable

A
93
Q

Is the following experiment reliable or valid or both?

Every time a mouse goes on the scale it says that the mouse weighs 600 lbs.

A

Reliable, because it gives the same answer every time but not valid

94
Q

Experimental - Only type of study that can prove _____

A

Only type of study that can prove CAUSEATION

95
Q

Double-Blind Procedure Definition:

A

Procedure where _____ all the researchers & participants don’t know who is receiving treatment

96
Q

Double-Blind Procedure is commonly used in ?

A

Drug evaluation Studies

97
Q

Experimental methods allow researchers to ______ variables, use ______ groups, and apply ______ __________ to establish _______ & ______ relationships.

A

Experimental methods allow researchers to MANIPULATE variables, USE CONTROL GROUPS, and apply RANDOM ASSIGNMENT to establish CAUSE & EFFECT relationships.

98
Q

Placebo definition:

A

A placebo is a substance that has no effect, often used as a control in clinical trials. Placebos are designed to look identical to the active treatment but do not contain any active ingredients.

99
Q

Placebo Effect:

A

The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon where a person experiences a real improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, simply because they believe they are receiving a genuine treatment.

100
Q

Nocebo Effect:

A

Expectation of negative effects of a treatment, even when it doesn’t do anything, increases the chance that people will feel them

101
Q

Both the Placebo and Nocebo effect are ____________ ______

A

Confounding Variables

102
Q

Both the Nocebo and Placebo Effect ___ give physiological effects on the body

A

CAN

103
Q

Single-Blind Procedure: Experimental Procedure in which the research participants are ____ about whether they have received the treatment or the placebo

A

BLIND

104
Q

Double-Blind Procedure purpose is same as Single-Blind Procedure but also prevents ?

A

prevents experimenter bias (prevents researchers from focusing too much on data that fits the narrative they’re looking for or/and ignoring data that doesn’t fit their narrative

105
Q

Single-Blind Procedures prevent participants from trying to give “right” answer or pleasing the researchers

True or False

A

TRUE

106
Q

Double-Blind Procedure Definition:

A

Procedure where _____ all the researchers & participants don’t know who is receiving treatment

107
Q

Double-Blind Procedure purpose is same as Single-Blind Procedure but also prevents ?

A

prevents experimenter bias (prevents researchers from focusing too much on data that fits the narrative they’re looking for or/and ignoring data that doesn’t fit their narrative

108
Q

Both Single and Double Blind procedures prevent _________ ____ & ____

A

confounding variables and bias

109
Q

Experimental group is the group that is exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______

A

The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

110
Q

The Control group is the group that is NOT exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______.

A

The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

111
Q
A
112
Q

Both Experimental and Correlational Studies use ______ _____ to pick their sample

A

Random Sampling

113
Q

The Control group is the group that is NOT exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______.

A

The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

114
Q

The purpose of the Control group is to serve as a baseline for _______ against the experimental group, which does receive the treatment. It sees whether the independent variable caused a _____ change.

A

COMPARISON. It sees whether the independent variable caused a BEHAVIOR change.

115
Q

All variables (except for independent variable) must be kept ________ in order to attribute an observed changes to manipulating the independent variable. This helps to establish a cause-and-effect relationship and ensures that other factors do not ________ the results

A

All variables (except for independent variable) must be kept CONSTANT in order to attribute an observed changes to manipulating the independent variable. This helps to establish a cause-and-effect relationship and ensures that other factors do not INFLUENCE the results

116
Q

A group of volunteers experiencing chronic pain is recruited for the study.

Identify the group: This group receives the new pain relief medication.

Identify the group: This group receives a placebo, which could be a sugar pill that looks identical to the medication but contains no active ingredients.

Both groups are instructed to take their respective pills for a specified period.

A

New pain relief medication group is Experimental Group

The group that receives the placebo is the Control Group

117
Q

Random Assignment definition:

A

Process of randomly picking people to be in the control group or experimental group

118
Q

Random Assignment’s purpose is to ________ differences between the groups & prevents __________ _______

A

MINIMIZES differences between groups and prevents CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

119
Q

Only ____________ Studies use Random Assignment

A

Experimental

120
Q

Experimental methods allow researchers to ______ variables, use ______ groups, and apply ______ __________ to establish _______ & ______ relationships.

A

Experimental methods allow researchers to manipulate variables, USE CONTROL GROUPS, and apply RANDOM ASSIGNMENT to establish CAUSE & EFFECT relationships.

121
Q

______ connect observations while ________ predict

A

Theories connect observations while Hypotheses predict

122
Q

ALL studies need to have a _____ sample in order to be later generalized

A

ALL studies need to have a LARGE sample in order to be generalizable

123
Q

The _____ to ends of the range the ____ the correlational coefficient. The sign of the coefficient does __ matter towards the strength, it only shows _____ of the relationship. The closer to ___ the weaker the correlational coefficient is.

Ex: -0.91 is strong correlational coefficient

A

The CLOSER to ends of the range the STRONGER the correlational coefficient. The sign of the coefficient does NOT matter towards the strength, it only shows DIRECTION of the relationship. The closer to 0, the weaker the correlational coefficient is. (POSTIVE SIGN = POSTIVE CORRELATION) (NEGATIVE SIGN = NEGATIVE CORRELATION) (NUMBER CLOSE TO 0 = NO CORRELATION)

124
Q

Effect size is:

A

An indication of the magnitude of the relationship between variables that helps us interpret the significance and impact of the relationship between variables in statistical analysis.

125
Q

Effect Size:
A large effect size suggests a ____ relationship, meaning that one variable can be explained or predicted by the other to a _____ extent & the ___ influence one variable has on the other.

A

A large effect size suggests a STRONG relationship, meaning that one variable can be explained or predicted by the other to a GREATER extent & the MORE influence one variable has on the other.

126
Q

The correlation coefficient’s name is _____ correlation coefficients. The coefficient’s job is to ______ correlation.

A

Pearson correlation coefficient.
The coefficient’s job is to EXPRESS correlation.

127
Q

The variable of the Pearson Coefficient is _

A

r

128
Q

_ indicates a perfect positive linear relationship,

A

+1

129
Q

_ indicates a perfect negative linear relationship,

A

-1

130
Q

Perfect positive and Perfect negative correlations are (rare/common)

A

Rare

131
Q

_ indicates no linear relationship.

A

0

132
Q

Number of dots tell you how many _____ are in the study

A

Number of dots tell you how many PARTICIPANTS are in the study

133
Q

a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a ______ relationship than +.30.

A

a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a STRONGER relationship than +.30.

134
Q

a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a stronger relationship than +.30.

A
135
Q

The closer to ends of the range the stronger the correlational coefficient

A

A statistical

136
Q

Scatter plot definiton:

A

Graph that acts as a visual tool that showcases correlation
Has a cluster of Dots each dot represent
-the value of 2 variables
-1 participant

137
Q
A
138
Q

Correlation Coefficient:

A

A statistical index of the relationship between 2 variables ranging from -1.00 to +1.000

139
Q

Positive Correlation: As one variable increases so does the _____ variable

A

other

140
Q

Positive Correlation on a graph has an (Positive/Negative) slope

A

POSITIVE SLOPE

141
Q

Negative Correlation: As one variable increases the other _____

A

DECREASES

142
Q

Negative Correlation on a graph has a (Positive/Negative) slope

A

Negative Slope

143
Q

No Correlation: ___ relationship between two variables

A

NO relationship

144
Q

No Correlation on a graph: Dots are all over the place, have __ slope or ____

A

No Correlation on a graph: Dots are all over the place, have no slope or pattern

145
Q
A
146
Q

What is this an example of?

The more tabacco a pregnant women consumes the more likely her child is born premature

A

POSITVIE CORRELATION

147
Q

Conformation Bias:

A

the tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs

148
Q

What is this an example of?
During presidential elections, people tend to seek information that paints the candidate they support in a positive light, while dismissing any information that paints them in a negative light

A

Conformation Bias

149
Q

Illusory Correlation definition and how it is caused

A

Because of conformation bias people sometimes perceiving a relationship between variables when there isn’t or perceiving a stronger/weaker relationship (often arising from chance events) then there is (before looking at the data)

150
Q

Regression Mean - A _____ phenomenon that occurs when ______ measurements are followed by more _____ results

A

A STATISTICAL phenomenon that occurs when EXTREME measurements are followed by more TYPICAL results

151
Q

What is this the representing:

If a variable is unusual on its first measurement, it tends to be closer to the average on a second measurement.

A

Regression towards the mean

The coach might think because he yelled they did better but its really because of regression toward mean.

152
Q

If a team does terrible one game and the coach yells at them and the next game they go back to good playing. They are regressing towards the ____

A

mean (however Regressing to mean doesn’t happen only from low values but also high values.

153
Q

This is a definition of ______
These methods go beyond correlation to demonstrate the actual effects one variable has on another.

A

Experimental Methods

154
Q

Third Variable Problem: A situation in correlational research where a third, unmeasured variable causes the relationship between two other variables, making it appear that there is causation when there isn’t.

A
155
Q

All cause and effect relationships are correlational but not all correlational relationships are cause and effect

True or False

A

True

156
Q

Researchers find a correlation between students’ time spent playing video games and their academic performance. As students spend more time playing video games, their grades tend to be lower.

Question: What might explain this correlation, and what is the third variable?

A

While it appears that playing video games negatively affects academic performance, a third variable, such as time management skills, could be influencing both. Students who struggle with time management might spend more time gaming and less time studying, leading to lower grades. In this case, time management is the third variable that explains the correlation without implying that video games directly cause poor academic performance.

157
Q

Causational relationships between variables are/aren’t always correlational

A

CAUSATIONAL ARE ALWAYS CORROLATIONAL

158
Q

Correlational Relationships are/aren’t always Causational

A

Correlational Relationships ARE NOT always Causational

159
Q

Directionality Problem: The directionality problem refers to a situation in correlational research where it’s unclear ___ variable is influencing the other.

A

unclear WHICH variable is influencing the other

160
Q

What is this the definition of?
when two variables are correlated, it’s difficult to determine whether Variable A causes changes in Variable B, or if Variable B causes changes in Variable A.

A

Directionality Problem

161
Q

Label standard deviation (1 - 3) in normal distributions & state the corresponding percentages

A

In a normal distribution, approximately 68% of the scores are within one standard deviation (SD), 95% are within 2 SD, and 99.7% are within 3 SD from the mean, as illustrated in the image.

162
Q
A

AP Psychology (8 decks)

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