Non-Experimental Methods Lesson Flashcards
In psychology, researchers use various methods to study _____ and explore different _____
behavior and events
There are _ categories of Research. ____________, _____________and _____________
There are 3 categories of Research. Descriptive, Correlational and Experimental
There are _ categories of Research. Descriptive Research is research done on interesting cases that ______ it and then is later shared with others. Descriptive Research doesn’t look for __________
There are 3 categories of Research. Descriptive Research is research done on interesting cases that DESCRIBED it and then is later shared with others. Descriptive Research doesn’t look for CORRELATIONS
Some ways to carry out Correlational Research are _________ and sometimes ____________ ____________
SURVEYS and sometimes NATURALISIC OBSERVATION
Some examples of Descriptive research are ____ _______ and sometimes ___________ ___________
Some examples of Descriptive research are CASE STUDIES and sometimes NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
Descriptive Statistics does what:
Describes your data from the experiment.
Different diagrams that can be used to display Descriptive Statistics are
Frequency Distributions, frequeny polygons or histograms
Correlational Research looks for ___________ or relationships between variables.
CORRELATION
Someways correlational research is performed are by using_________ and sometimes ____________ __________
Someways correlational research is performed are by using SURVEYS and sometimes NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
The third type of Research is Experimental Research. It explores ________
CAUSATION
Expiremental Research looks to prove causal relationships. Casual means ______
Something that causes something else to happen (CAUSE AND EFFECT)
Non-experimental methods, such as_____,______, _____ and _______ are used to gather research
case studies, meta analysis naturalistic observations, and surveys
An observation technique where a few/one individuals are studied in depth, by describing their behavior in the hope of revealing things that can apply to to larger groups
An observation technique where a few/one individuals are studied in depth, by describing their behavior in the hope of revealing things that can apply to to larger groups
________ are one of oldest types of research methods in psychology
Case Studies
Case studies might not be generalizable because
Can be misleading if the individual is atypical
Case Studies don’t show how variables are _____ to one another
Usually don’t have an initial _____ attached to them
Doesn’t show causation of ____ (what caused behavior to happen) but can be used to generate a hypothesis that can later be tested experimentally
Doesn’t show how variables are related to one another (corrolational)
Usually Don’t have an intial hypothesis attached to them
Doesn’t show causation of behavior(what caused behavior to happen) but can be used to generate a hypothesis that can later be tested experimentally
Famous case studies: Phineas Gage
Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury in 1848. This case study provided valuable understand into the _______
This case study provided valuable insights into the relationship between the brain and behavior, revealing the importance of the frontal lobe in personality and decision-making.
Famous Case Studies: The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, demonstrated classical conditioning in a young child. Remains a classic example of ____
This case study is famous for its ethical concerns but remains a classic example of behaviorism in psychology.
Famous Case Studies:
Genie was a young girl who was severely neglected and abused, leading to a lack of social and linguistic development. This case study highlighted the ______
highlighted the critical period hypothesis in language acquisition and the effects of isolation on human development.
Famous Case Studies: HM (Henry Molaison) was a patient who underwent brain surgery to treat epilepsy and subsequently experienced severe amnesia. This case study revolutionized our understanding
of memory and the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories.
They can provide valuable ____ and suggest new ______ ideas, but unusual cases might lead to wrong conclusions. Biased information can ____ ______ Personal stories in case studies grab our attention, but we need other research methods to find broader truths.
understanding, research ideas, distort results
Clinical psychologists use case studies to create _______ profiles of clients, giving them a _____ understanding of individuals or small groups. However, case studies may be ______, since each case is unique.
detailed, deep understanding, generalizable
Naturalistic Observation: Watching and recording the _____ behavior of _____ individuals, ______. Researchers are ____ influencing results. CAN NOT prove ____ ___ _____
natural, many, secretly, NOT , cause and effect
Naturalistic Observation usually done in recording or very discretely
What kind of research method is the following? Ex: If a student wanted to observe how many people fully stop at a stop sign, they could watch the cars from a distance and record their data.
Naturalistic Observation
Purpose of Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves recording responses in natural settings to identify purposes, strengths, and limitations. & provides valuable insights into behavior
Naturalistic Observation provides insights into behavior but does NOT ______ behavior but acually _______ behavior, just like in case studies. This method uncovers _____ contributing to a deeper understanding of cognition, communication, and social interactions.
Explain, Describes patterns
Advantage of Naturalistic Observation: By capturing behaviors in their authentic environments, researchers can gather data that may not be ____ measurable through experimental procedures
ethically
Surveys - Asking people questions, asking people to record their behavior & opinions. Looks at many cases in less depth. Allows data from large groups to be collected efficently
Most common type of study
Measures correlation (relationship between variables)
Con of Surveys
Framing/Wording Effects means
The way you word question affects the way people respond
Random Sampling is the best way make sure your conclusions are _______
generalizable
Meta Analysis: Involves analyzing and ____ data from multiple studies to draw more reliable conclusions
Meta Analysis: Involves analyzing and COMBINING data from multiple studies to draw more reliable conclusions
Meta Analysis: By combining multiple studies researchers can identify _____ and ____ that may not be apparent in individual studies
By combining multiple studies researchers can identify PATTERNS and RELATIONSHIPS that may not be apparent in individual studies
If you don’t random sample you could fall victim to Sampling Bias
Flawed sampling process that lead to a sample that doesn’t represent the population
Theory - A generalized idea that explains _______ or _____ by offering ideas that organize what he have observed
Explains BEHAVIORS or EVENTS by offering ideas that organize what he have observed
Convenience Sampling definition:
Collecting research from a group that is easy to access
Convenience Sampling is biased
True or False
True
Population definition:
The entire group you need to study
Cons of Surveys
Social-Desirability Bias means:
Answering in a way that will please the researcher
Cons of Surveys
Self-Report Bias means:
When people don’t accurately report or remember their behaviors
Cons of Surveys
Social-Report Bias
Example : Asking about academic integrity ppl might not want to acknowledge they are even if it was anonymous
In Survey is crucial that the sample is ________ of the population being studied, achieved through ______ ______ methods such as drawing names or using random number generators.
representative, random sampling
Cons of Surveys
Low Response Rates - (The ppl who respond don’t represent population well)
Wording Effects (The way you word question affects the way people respond)
Random Sampling used to find a ______ representative of the population, in which every person in the population had as equal chance of being part of the sample. Larger samples are typically less ____. But a smaller unbiased sample would be more ______ than a large biased sample.
sample, biased, more valuable
Samples used in surveys MUST be achieved through ______ ______
random sampling
Theory - A generalized idea that explains _______ or _____ by offering ideas that organize what he have observed
Explains BEHAVIORS or EVENTS by offering ideas that organize what he have observed
Theories can BIAS our ________
Observations
This is an example of what: Better memory springs from more sleep
Theory
From a theory a hypothesis is created
Easiest way to create a hypothesis is to make a if then statement
Examples of Hypothesis:
If sleep improves memory improves
If a person is sleep deprives they’ll remember less
Falsifiability
The ability to prove a hypothesis, theory or idea can be proven wrong
Hypothesis, Theories and Scientific Ideas must be Falsifiable, this means that the hypothesis ____ be proven wrong. They also must be able to be ______ or ________
this means that the hypothesis CAN be proven wrong. They also must be able to be tested or measured
This is an example of ?
Having theorized that better memory comes from more sleep, we may see what me expect: We may perceive sleepy people’s comments as less insightful
This is an example of theories biasing our observations
Theory: Sleep improves memory
_______: When people are sleep deprived they will remember less from the day before
Hypothesis
When going through the scientific method peer review is used
Peer Review - Once a person has gotten a theory, hypothesis research, and written article other qualified researchers review your article _____, _____, and _____
Peer Review - Once a person has gotten a theory, hypothesis research, and written article other qualified researchers review your article theory, originality and accuracy
Two Types of Research Methods are __________ and ________
Correlation and Experimental
Correlation measures the extent to which variables may vary together and thus how much they _______ each other
Correlation measures the extent to which variables may vary together and thus how much they INFLUENCE each other
Variable: Anything that can ___ and is ____ & ____ to measure
Variable: Anything that can VARY and is FEASIBLE & ETHICAL to measure
Journal editors use ____ reviews to decide if research should be publicized
Journal editors use PEER reviews to decide if research should be publicized
Operational definition: term that is used to ______ the procedure of a study and the research variables
describe
Example of an _________ _________: Defining “anxiety” as a measurable increase in heart rate when exposed to a stressful situation
Example of an OPERATIONAL DEFINITON
Defining variables is known as ___________.
OPERATIONALIZING
Experimental studies must be able to be replicated in order to test ______
Hypotheses
The purpose of an ________ _______ is so that another psychologist could clearly replicate the same study & so others understand how the psychologist investigated the research question
Operational Definition
Operational Definitions are needed in Psychology because most of the time human behavior is being measured (which is hard to measure) so you must explain how these things will be measured so people understand what we’re looking for.
This is how to operationalizing Ex: Chocolate can cause violent behavior? You must ________ chocolate and violence. What kind of chocolate, how much? What is violence? Do you have to make them bleed, etc.
Operationalizing
Ex: Operationalizing Happiness in a study about Happiness
Operational Definition of Happiness: Participants rating how happy they are from 1 (most unhappy) -10(most happy)
Best way to know if your research is valid is if others get ____ results
similar
Operationalizing definitions allow for other researchers to test your hypothesis and replicate the study
Is is important to operalationize ALL variables
Two Types of Research Methods are __________ and ________
Correlation and Experimental
Correlation finds relationship between already present ______. Looks at things that you can’t experiment on or put in a lab, either because it is ______ or ______.
Correlation finds relationship between already present variables. Looks at things that you can’t experiment on or put in a lab, either because it is IMPRACTICAL or UNETHICAL
Correlation does ____ imply causation because there might be other variables affecting the variables. But shows relationships/correlations
Correlation does NOT imply causation
EX: If the focus is Women who vape during pregnancy you can’t do an experiment because it is unethical therefore correlational studies are used
Ask do you vape, how many times a day, are you pregnant and see health implication on babies
Experimental - A study carried out under controlled conditions where variables are manipulated in order to discover an unknown effect or to test or establish a hypothesis
Quasi-Experiments definition:
Quasi-experiments are research designs that allow researchers to evaluate the effects of treatment without random assignment to groups. Researchers take advantage of naturally occurring differences in groups to study the effects of variables.
Purpose of Quasi-Experiments
Quasi-experiments are often conducted in natural settings, allowing researchers to study interventions in more realistic environments (e.g., schools, hospitals, or communities
In situations where random assignment could pose ethical issues (e.g., assigning individuals to potentially harmful conditions)
Researchers may face practical limitations that make random assignment difficult, such as logistical challenges, resource constraints, or the nature of the groups being studied (e.g., existing classes in a school)
Cons of Quasi-Experiments
More exposure to confounding variables which threatens validity of experiment and Selection Bias(differences between groups could influence the outcomes)
Also doesn’t give as much control as true experiment
Quasi-experiments are valuable in situations where random assignment is not feasible, such as studying the impact of trauma on individuals.
Why is Random Assignment not feasible
Ethics
Independent Variable: Used in experiments, the factor that is being ______. This is the _____
MANIPULATED, CAUSE
Dependent Variable:
Used in experiments, the factor whose outcome is ________. This is the ____
MEASURED, EFFECT
Confounding Variable
An outside variable, that you aren’t trying to measure or test that may skew the results
Confounding variables can make it hard to ________ the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables, making it difficult to determine if the observed effects are due to the independent variable or the confounding variable.
Can make it hard to UNDERSTAND the true relationship
Cons of Experimental: Not always can be done because it would be unethical or impractical
Validity
The extent to which a test, measurement, or research study accurately measures what it claims to measure. It tells us whether the results are accurate and meaningful.
To maintain an experiment’s validity must be wary of ____________ ________ and use
To maintain an experiment’s validity must be wary of CONFOUNDING VARIABLES and use RANDOM ASSIGNMENT & precise OPERATIONAL DEFINITONS
Reliability
An experiment is reliable when it always gives the same answer
The goal is to have an experiment that is both valid and reliable
Is the following experiment reliable or valid or both?
Every time a mouse goes on the scale it says that the mouse weighs 600 lbs.
Reliable, because it gives the same answer every time but not valid
Experimental - Only type of study that can prove _____
Only type of study that can prove CAUSEATION
Double-Blind Procedure Definition:
Procedure where _____ all the researchers & participants don’t know who is receiving treatment
Double-Blind Procedure is commonly used in ?
Drug evaluation Studies
Experimental methods allow researchers to ______ variables, use ______ groups, and apply ______ __________ to establish _______ & ______ relationships.
Experimental methods allow researchers to MANIPULATE variables, USE CONTROL GROUPS, and apply RANDOM ASSIGNMENT to establish CAUSE & EFFECT relationships.
Placebo definition:
A placebo is a substance that has no effect, often used as a control in clinical trials. Placebos are designed to look identical to the active treatment but do not contain any active ingredients.
Placebo Effect:
The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon where a person experiences a real improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, simply because they believe they are receiving a genuine treatment.
Nocebo Effect:
Expectation of negative effects of a treatment, even when it doesn’t do anything, increases the chance that people will feel them
Both the Placebo and Nocebo effect are ____________ ______
Confounding Variables
Both the Nocebo and Placebo Effect ___ give physiological effects on the body
CAN
Single-Blind Procedure: Experimental Procedure in which the research participants are ____ about whether they have received the treatment or the placebo
BLIND
Double-Blind Procedure purpose is same as Single-Blind Procedure but also prevents ?
prevents experimenter bias (prevents researchers from focusing too much on data that fits the narrative they’re looking for or/and ignoring data that doesn’t fit their narrative
Single-Blind Procedures prevent participants from trying to give “right” answer or pleasing the researchers
True or False
TRUE
Double-Blind Procedure Definition:
Procedure where _____ all the researchers & participants don’t know who is receiving treatment
Double-Blind Procedure purpose is same as Single-Blind Procedure but also prevents ?
prevents experimenter bias (prevents researchers from focusing too much on data that fits the narrative they’re looking for or/and ignoring data that doesn’t fit their narrative
Both Single and Double Blind procedures prevent _________ ____ & ____
confounding variables and bias
Experimental group is the group that is exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______
The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The Control group is the group that is NOT exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______.
The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Both Experimental and Correlational Studies use ______ _____ to pick their sample
Random Sampling
The Control group is the group that is NOT exposed to the ______ or the __________ _______.
The group that is exposed to the TREATMENT or the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The purpose of the Control group is to serve as a baseline for _______ against the experimental group, which does receive the treatment. It sees whether the independent variable caused a _____ change.
COMPARISON. It sees whether the independent variable caused a BEHAVIOR change.
All variables (except for independent variable) must be kept ________ in order to attribute an observed changes to manipulating the independent variable. This helps to establish a cause-and-effect relationship and ensures that other factors do not ________ the results
All variables (except for independent variable) must be kept CONSTANT in order to attribute an observed changes to manipulating the independent variable. This helps to establish a cause-and-effect relationship and ensures that other factors do not INFLUENCE the results
A group of volunteers experiencing chronic pain is recruited for the study.
Identify the group: This group receives the new pain relief medication.
Identify the group: This group receives a placebo, which could be a sugar pill that looks identical to the medication but contains no active ingredients.
Both groups are instructed to take their respective pills for a specified period.
New pain relief medication group is Experimental Group
The group that receives the placebo is the Control Group
Random Assignment definition:
Process of randomly picking people to be in the control group or experimental group
Random Assignment’s purpose is to ________ differences between the groups & prevents __________ _______
MINIMIZES differences between groups and prevents CONFOUNDING VARIABLES
Only ____________ Studies use Random Assignment
Experimental
Experimental methods allow researchers to ______ variables, use ______ groups, and apply ______ __________ to establish _______ & ______ relationships.
Experimental methods allow researchers to manipulate variables, USE CONTROL GROUPS, and apply RANDOM ASSIGNMENT to establish CAUSE & EFFECT relationships.
______ connect observations while ________ predict
Theories connect observations while Hypotheses predict
ALL studies need to have a _____ sample in order to be later generalized
ALL studies need to have a LARGE sample in order to be generalizable
The _____ to ends of the range the ____ the correlational coefficient. The sign of the coefficient does __ matter towards the strength, it only shows _____ of the relationship. The closer to ___ the weaker the correlational coefficient is.
Ex: -0.91 is strong correlational coefficient
The CLOSER to ends of the range the STRONGER the correlational coefficient. The sign of the coefficient does NOT matter towards the strength, it only shows DIRECTION of the relationship. The closer to 0, the weaker the correlational coefficient is. (POSTIVE SIGN = POSTIVE CORRELATION) (NEGATIVE SIGN = NEGATIVE CORRELATION) (NUMBER CLOSE TO 0 = NO CORRELATION)
Effect size is:
An indication of the magnitude of the relationship between variables that helps us interpret the significance and impact of the relationship between variables in statistical analysis.
Effect Size:
A large effect size suggests a ____ relationship, meaning that one variable can be explained or predicted by the other to a _____ extent & the ___ influence one variable has on the other.
A large effect size suggests a STRONG relationship, meaning that one variable can be explained or predicted by the other to a GREATER extent & the MORE influence one variable has on the other.
The correlation coefficient’s name is _____ correlation coefficients. The coefficient’s job is to ______ correlation.
Pearson correlation coefficient.
The coefficient’s job is to EXPRESS correlation.
The variable of the Pearson Coefficient is _
r
_ indicates a perfect positive linear relationship,
+1
_ indicates a perfect negative linear relationship,
-1
Perfect positive and Perfect negative correlations are (rare/common)
Rare
_ indicates no linear relationship.
0
Number of dots tell you how many _____ are in the study
Number of dots tell you how many PARTICIPANTS are in the study
a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a ______ relationship than +.30.
a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a STRONGER relationship than +.30.
a correlation coefficient of -.91 indicates a stronger relationship than +.30.
The closer to ends of the range the stronger the correlational coefficient
A statistical
Scatter plot definiton:
Graph that acts as a visual tool that showcases correlation
Has a cluster of Dots each dot represent
-the value of 2 variables
-1 participant
Correlation Coefficient:
A statistical index of the relationship between 2 variables ranging from -1.00 to +1.000
Positive Correlation: As one variable increases so does the _____ variable
other
Positive Correlation on a graph has an (Positive/Negative) slope
POSITIVE SLOPE
Negative Correlation: As one variable increases the other _____
DECREASES
Negative Correlation on a graph has a (Positive/Negative) slope
Negative Slope
No Correlation: ___ relationship between two variables
NO relationship
No Correlation on a graph: Dots are all over the place, have __ slope or ____
No Correlation on a graph: Dots are all over the place, have no slope or pattern
What is this an example of?
The more tabacco a pregnant women consumes the more likely her child is born premature
POSITVIE CORRELATION
Conformation Bias:
the tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs
What is this an example of?
During presidential elections, people tend to seek information that paints the candidate they support in a positive light, while dismissing any information that paints them in a negative light
Conformation Bias
Illusory Correlation definition and how it is caused
Because of conformation bias people sometimes perceiving a relationship between variables when there isn’t or perceiving a stronger/weaker relationship (often arising from chance events) then there is (before looking at the data)
Regression Mean - A _____ phenomenon that occurs when ______ measurements are followed by more _____ results
A STATISTICAL phenomenon that occurs when EXTREME measurements are followed by more TYPICAL results
What is this the representing:
If a variable is unusual on its first measurement, it tends to be closer to the average on a second measurement.
Regression towards the mean
The coach might think because he yelled they did better but its really because of regression toward mean.
If a team does terrible one game and the coach yells at them and the next game they go back to good playing. They are regressing towards the ____
mean (however Regressing to mean doesn’t happen only from low values but also high values.
This is a definition of ______
These methods go beyond correlation to demonstrate the actual effects one variable has on another.
Experimental Methods
Third Variable Problem: A situation in correlational research where a third, unmeasured variable causes the relationship between two other variables, making it appear that there is causation when there isn’t.
All cause and effect relationships are correlational but not all correlational relationships are cause and effect
True or False
True
Researchers find a correlation between students’ time spent playing video games and their academic performance. As students spend more time playing video games, their grades tend to be lower.
Question: What might explain this correlation, and what is the third variable?
While it appears that playing video games negatively affects academic performance, a third variable, such as time management skills, could be influencing both. Students who struggle with time management might spend more time gaming and less time studying, leading to lower grades. In this case, time management is the third variable that explains the correlation without implying that video games directly cause poor academic performance.
Causational relationships between variables are/aren’t always correlational
CAUSATIONAL ARE ALWAYS CORROLATIONAL
Correlational Relationships are/aren’t always Causational
Correlational Relationships ARE NOT always Causational
Directionality Problem: The directionality problem refers to a situation in correlational research where it’s unclear ___ variable is influencing the other.
unclear WHICH variable is influencing the other
What is this the definition of?
when two variables are correlated, it’s difficult to determine whether Variable A causes changes in Variable B, or if Variable B causes changes in Variable A.
Directionality Problem
Label standard deviation (1 - 3) in normal distributions & state the corresponding percentages
In a normal distribution, approximately 68% of the scores are within one standard deviation (SD), 95% are within 2 SD, and 99.7% are within 3 SD from the mean, as illustrated in the image.
