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Psychology C2 > Non Experimental Methods > Flashcards

Non Experimental Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

EEG- 20-40 mins

A

•place electrodes on scalp
• record electrical impulses in brain
• visual display (graph)electrical activity
> risk free / cheaper
> not invasive
> no radiation
X poor spatial resolution
X can’t scan deeper areas
X several regions at once

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2
Q

fMRI

A

• images representing the increase in oxygen flow in BIOOD -> to activate areas of brain
• active areas take more blood than needed
OB accumalates in active areas
•Magnetic properties - effect of magnetic fields on iron in the blood
•BOLD signal recorded (blood-oxygen-level dependant)
> shows brain activity - allows us to identify different brain functions

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3
Q

MRI- 15-90mins

A

• magnetic field - hydrogen atoms move
• magnet switched off - atoms revert - electromagnetic signal
• signals delected-> create MRI images. • cross-sectional- cuts straight through
• 2D image of brain structure produced
- x harmful radiation
- detailed images
- objective investigation
> uncomfortable /expensive
> only 2D image
2D image

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4
Q

PET - open ring 10 -40 mins

A

• inject radio tracer combined with FDG
• positrons collide with electrons and release gamma rays in opposite directions so we can then locate gamma rays
• more active parts have more positron movement
• picture of the brain is built up
> less claustrophobic
> locates tumours before symptoms
> minors movements don’t affect results
X still be claustrophobic
X pregnant women
X tracer is invasive- insulin’s - diabetics

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5
Q

Procedure of performing content analysis

A

• state the purpose of the study and research Q’s
• Define the sampling frame
• obtain a sample of material of interest
• define the categories of interest in the material
• scan the material for instances of the caregories
• apply descriptive or inferential statistics to the results of coding
• draw conclusions from the results of
the statistics

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6
Q

What happens in content analysis?

A

Sample - x a group of people
> artefacts
> must be representative
Behavioural categories
> break down info and tally when it occurs
> coding system- quantatitive or qualitative
Results
> look at date and draw conclusions

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7
Q

Ways of conducting content analysis

A

CODING
•change qualitative into quantitative •categorise then tally - place into
meaningful units
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
•generates more qualitative data
(non- numerical)
• theme referred to an idea
• Keeps cropping up throughout content

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8
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of CA

A

High mundane realism
High ecological validity
Few ethical issues - secondary data
X OBSERVER BIAS
affects objectivity- based on their own opinion
X CULTURE BIAS
content misinterpreted
verbal/ written affect by language and culture of observer

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9
Q

What is content analysis?

A

NON EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
- specific tupe of observation
- observed/ analysed content produced by people (artefacts) (TV shows)
- research method
- analyse results of another study

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10
Q

RELIABILITY
VALIDITY
CA

A

• coding system clear and easy
• inter observer reliability - 80% agreement = Coding System is reliable

  • may not measure what you intend
  • ask a panel of experts- if agreed CS has one tram validity
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11
Q

What’s is a cross sectional study?

A

• data collected at one point in time
• snapshot in time
• participants tested once
• compare 2 different groups
• experimental design = independent groups measures

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12
Q

Strengths of cross sectional study

A

> quick, cheap, practical
(1 test)
P’s more easily obtained
(less pressure)
less ethical considerations (privacy)

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13
Q

Weaknesses of cross sectional study

A

• less rich detailed data collected
(Participant differences)
• data collect is a snapshot in time
(harder to identify and Antalya’s developmental trends)

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14
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

• data collected repeatedly over time
• same ps assessed
• regular intervals of tests
• compare data of each test
• experimental design = repeated measures

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15
Q

Strengths of longitudinal study

A

> same group of ps followed throughout
(P variables don’t affect data)
spotting developmental trends
(Regular intervals/compare findings)

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16
Q

Weaknesses of longitudinal study

A

• ps drop out- attrition rates
(disrupts study)
• withdrawal of ps
(Finding biased if remaining ps share same characteristics)
• practical difficulties
(£, time-consuming, researchers change, data collection, analysis will vary in strength)

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17
Q

What is a case study
(non-experimental technique)
= NO IV OR DV

A

• in- depen study of one person or small group of people
• can refer to a study of an institution or event (school/ hospital)
• COMBINATION OF RESEARCH METHODS
• detailed writen account of behaviour a & researchers interpretations
- lab experiment, questionnaire, psychometric test

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18
Q

Validity of case studies

A

Depend on methods used
TRIANGULATION
Compare findings from all 3. methods
Observations, questionnaire responses and p comments
=TRIANGULATION ANALYSIS
It methods valid, results shouId all agree with eachother

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19
Q

Reliability of case studies

A

> qualitative data often requires interpretation
= Open to researcher bias
• use inter- rater reliability by showing results to another researcher / compare results from both interpretations - assess how reliable

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20
Q

Limitations of case studies

A

> ETHICS
x withdraw, consent,privacy, vulnerable, confidentiality
RELIABILITY
- cannot be replicated NOT RELIABLE
(rare illnesses)
GENERALISABILITY
- accurate for Clive, not valid beyond him
RESEARCHER BIAS
subjectivity in interpretation
HARD TO ANALYSE
REPLICABILITY
+ very rare illness = can’t be repeated

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21
Q

Strength of case studies

A

> ETHICS
- only way we can investigate phenomena.
VALIDITY
- lots of methods can be checked
GAIN INSIGHT/ UNDERSTANDING
- so rare, gives us detail on complications of the brain
ONLY INVESTIGATED WITH CASE
STUDY
- naturally occurring feature/illness
- cannot give it to someone
- naturally occuring feature / illness
• cannot give it to someone

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22
Q

case study
Example: impact of dementia on individual’s life

A

1) carry out structured observation
- see behaviour they show
2) psychometric test - cognitive ability
3) lab experiment - test co-ordination
4) interviews/ questionnaires
- friend or relatives
5) Correlate 2 or more variables (person’s alertness / No of hours they sleep)

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23
Q

Self-report techniques

A

methods of gathering dater where P’s provide info about themselves without interference from the experimenter
(attitudes, beliefs, opinions, emotions)

24
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

self report technique
- Ps record their thoughts, feeling and opinions ins a set of pre-determined questions.
- answer with written responses
- or choose from fixed pre-set items

25
Q

Examples of closed questions

A

LIKERT SCALES
- indicates their agreement with a statement using scale
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES
- identifies a value which represents their strength of feelings
FIXED CHOICE OPTION
-includes a lift of options that respondents choose
(week,month,year)

26
Q

Quantitative data

A
  • quick, easy to analyse
  • easier to establish trends
    x lacks depth and detail
    x limited range of responses
27
Q

Qualitative data

A
  • rich, in-depth and detailed
  • provide new ideas
    x difficult to analyse
    x hard to find patterns
28
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A
  • easy to repeat
    (large sample sizes)
    -respondents more likely to reveal personal info
    (than face to face interview)
29
Q

Weaknesses of questionnaires

A

VALIDITY
-leading Qs
-Ps forced to select As that don’t reflect their real thoughts and feelings
-different interpretations of the Qs
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS

30
Q

What are interviews?

A

Self report methods
-spoken not written
-researcher asks Qs in real time
-by phone
-face to face
-

31
Q

Types of interviews

A

STRUCTURED
-predetermined
-all asked the same
SEMI-STRUCTURED
-S/US techniques
-can explore As from interviewee
UNSTRUCTURED
-only first Q may be predetermined
-following Qs determined by As of interviewee

32
Q

VALIDITY of interviews

A

x construction of Qs- ambiguous/leading
x social desirability -don’t reflect truth
x interviewer bias - unintentionally lead P to desired answer
= reduced by double blind procedure

33
Q

RELIABILITY of interviews

A

> Qs must be consistent
same options for answers
use test-retest method
-same Q and I week later then correlate results
interpretations can be subjective
=more than one interviewer
=INTER-REATER RELIABILITY

34
Q

Strengths of interviews

A

S - less interview skill needed
U/SS - info accessed is more revealed
ALL - in depth qualitative data collected and statistically analysed

35
Q

Weaknesses of Interviews

A

SS/U - interviewer bias
- more skill needed
- less reliability if they ask different Qs
ALL - reliability
- same interviewer behaving differently on
different occasions

36
Q

Behavioural categories
(observations)

A

OPERATIONALISE
e.g aggression - hit, kick, scream
1) observable
2) precise
3) cover all possible behaviours
4) not overlap (smile or grin)

37
Q

Designing an observation

A

TIME SAMPLING
- pre agreed schedule
>reduce number of observations (every 10 mins)
X unrepresentative
EVENT SAMPLING
-tally every time anticipated behaviour occurs
>useful if behaviour doesn’t happen frequently
X hard to record everything

38
Q

Issues with validity
(observations)

A

OBSERVER BIAS
-2+ observers
-double blind procedure
ISSUES WITH CODING SYSTEM
-PILOT- tweak categories
-compare with concurrent
(pre existing agreement)

39
Q

Inter-observer reliability
(observations)
1- miss detail
2- objective/unbias

A

1- familiarise with behavioural categories
2- observe the same behaviour at the same time
3- compare/discuss differences
4- conduct observation
5- analyse data/ calculate reliability
6- high reliability if both see the same behaviour at the same time

40
Q

Participant observation

A
  • researcher member of the group
    > in-depth date as they are close to Ps
    > unlikely to overlook or miss behaviour
    X objectivity affected
41
Q

Non-participant observation

A
  • researcher outside of group they’re observing
    > more objective- not part of group
    X may not gain as much info
    X may miss behaviours
42
Q

Covert observation

A
  • observer not visible/ Ps unaware
    > behaviour more natural so higher ecological validity
    X less ethical- Ps can’t give fully informed consent
43
Q

Overt observation

A
  • observer visible Ps aware
    > ethical- get informed consent
    X Ps change behaviour
  • social desirability bias
44
Q

Structured observation

A
  • use systems to organise observations
    > detailed
    X too much to record
    X observer bias - write down behaviours that meet their needs
45
Q

Unstructured observation

A
  • recording all behaviour seen
    > makes recording data easier
    > can be
    X important info may be missed if not identified as a category
46
Q

Naturalistic observation

A
  • behaviour occurs naturally
    > high ecological validity
    > findings generalised to real life
    X hard to replicate - low control of variables
47
Q

Controlled observation

A
  • within a structured environment
    > easier to replicate - control of variables
    X unnatural environment- behaviour is less natural
    X low ecological validity
48
Q

How do you use correlations?

A

1- decide what you are measuring- operationalise them
2- measure each P on both co-variables
3- plot the values on a scatter graph to see if there’s a relationship
4- carry out a statistical test (spearman’s rho) to see if the relationship is significant or due to chance
5- this will produce a correlation co-efficient

49
Q

What are correlation co-efficients

A

Measure from +1 to -1
- higher the number, stronger the relationship
- use table of significance (due to chance?)

50
Q

Correlational hypothesis

A
  • needs to state the relationship you would expect to find
    different from experimental hypothesis because you are not looking for a difference between 2 conditions of the IV
51
Q

CORRELATION DOES NOT = CAUSATION

A
  • cannot be certain one co-variable caused another
  • a third variable may have caused a change in both
    = INTERVENING VARIABLE
52
Q

What is a correlation?

A

A relationship between 2 variables
- test whether they are related and how strongly
- NO IV or DV
=CO-VARIABLES

53
Q

When do we use a correlational design?

A

To test a hypothesis about a relationship between 2 variables
Or
When looking for a relationship that would be impractical/ unethical to manipulate for an experiment

54
Q

Strengths of correlational studies

A
  • used when could be impractical or unethical
  • no manipulation = high ecological validity
  • easily repeated = reliability can be assessed
  • make use of existing data
  • relationships can be illustrated
55
Q

Weaknesses of correlational studies

A

X lack generalisability
X lack internal/ external validity
X no cause and effect relationship- intervening variable

Psychology C2 (7 decks)

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