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Psychology C2 > Non Experimental Methods > Flashcards

Non Experimental Methods Flashcards

1
Q

EEG- 20-40 mins

A

•place electrodes on scalp
• record electrical impulses in brain
• visual display (graph)electrical activity
> risk free / cheaper
> not invasive
> no radiation
X poor spatial resolution
X can’t scan deeper areas
X several regions at once

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2
Q

fMRI

A

• images representing the increase in oxygen flow in BIOOD -> to activate areas of brain
• active areas take more blood than needed
OB accumalates in active areas
•Magnetic properties - effect of magnetic fields on iron in the blood
•BOLD signal recorded (blood-oxygen-level dependant)
> shows brain activity - allows us to identify different brain functions

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3
Q

MRI- 15-90mins

A

• magnetic field - hydrogen atoms move
• magnet switched off - atoms revert - electromagnetic signal
• signals delected-> create MRI images. • cross-sectional- cuts straight through
• 2D image of brain structure produced
- x harmful radiation
- detailed images
- objective investigation
> uncomfortable /expensive
> only 2D image
2D image

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4
Q

PET - open ring 10 -40 mins

A

• inject radio tracer combined with FDG
• positrons collide with electrons and release gamma rays in opposite directions so we can then locate gamma rays
• more active parts have more positron movement
• picture of the brain is built up
> less claustrophobic
> locates tumours before symptoms
> minors movements don’t affect results
X still be claustrophobic
X pregnant women
X tracer is invasive- insulin’s - diabetics

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5
Q

Procedure of performing content analysis

A

• state the purpose of the study and research Q’s
• Define the sampling frame
• obtain a sample of material of interest
• define the categories of interest in the material
• scan the material for instances of the caregories
• apply descriptive or inferential statistics to the results of coding
• draw conclusions from the results of
the statistics

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6
Q

What happens in content analysis?

A

Sample - x a group of people
> artefacts
> must be representative
Behavioural categories
> break down info and tally when it occurs
> coding system- quantatitive or qualitative
Results
> look at date and draw conclusions

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7
Q

Ways of conducting content analysis

A

CODING
•change qualitative into quantitative •categorise then tally - place into
meaningful units
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
•generates more qualitative data
(non- numerical)
• theme referred to an idea
• Keeps cropping up throughout content

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8
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of CA

A

High mundane realism
High ecological validity
Few ethical issues - secondary data
X OBSERVER BIAS
affects objectivity- based on their own opinion
X CULTURE BIAS
content misinterpreted
verbal/ written affect by language and culture of observer

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9
Q

What is content analysis?

A

NON EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
- specific tupe of observation
- observed/ analysed content produced by people (artefacts) (TV shows)
- research method
- analyse results of another study

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10
Q

RELIABILITY
VALIDITY
CA

A

• coding system clear and easy
• inter observer reliability - 80% agreement = Coding System is reliable

  • may not measure what you intend
  • ask a panel of experts- if agreed CS has one tram validity
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11
Q

What’s is a cross sectional study?

A

• data collected at one point in time
• snapshot in time
• participants tested once
• compare 2 different groups
• experimental design = independent groups measures

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12
Q

Strengths of cross sectional study

A

> quick, cheap, practical
(1 test)
P’s more easily obtained
(less pressure)
less ethical considerations (privacy)

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13
Q

Weaknesses of cross sectional study

A

• less rich detailed data collected
(Participant differences)
• data collect is a snapshot in time
(harder to identify and Antalya’s developmental trends)

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14
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

• data collected repeatedly over time
• same ps assessed
• regular intervals of tests
• compare data of each test
• experimental design = repeated measures

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15
Q

Strengths of longitudinal study

A

> same group of ps followed throughout
(P variables don’t affect data)
spotting developmental trends
(Regular intervals/compare findings)

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16
Q

Weaknesses of longitudinal study

A

• ps drop out- attrition rates
(disrupts study)
• withdrawal of ps
(Finding biased if remaining ps share same characteristics)
• practical difficulties
(£, time-consuming, researchers change, data collection, analysis will vary in strength)

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17
Q

What is a case study
(non-experimental technique)
= NO IV OR DV

A

• in- depen study of one person or small group of people
• can refer to a study of an institution or event (school/ hospital)
• COMBINATION OF RESEARCH METHODS
• detailed writen account of behaviour a & researchers interpretations
- lab experiment, questionnaire, psychometric test

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18
Q

Validity of case studies

A

Depend on methods used
TRIANGULATION
Compare findings from all 3. methods
Observations, questionnaire responses and p comments
=TRIANGULATION ANALYSIS
It methods valid, results shouId all agree with eachother

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19
Q

Reliability of case studies

A

> qualitative data often requires interpretation
= Open to researcher bias
• use inter- rater reliability by showing results to another researcher / compare results from both interpretations - assess how reliable

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20
Q

Limitations of case studies

A

> ETHICS
x withdraw, consent,privacy, vulnerable, confidentiality
RELIABILITY
- cannot be replicated NOT RELIABLE
(rare illnesses)
GENERALISABILITY
- accurate for Clive, not valid beyond him
RESEARCHER BIAS
subjectivity in interpretation
HARD TO ANALYSE
REPLICABILITY
+ very rare illness = can’t be repeated

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21
Q

Strength of case studies

A

> ETHICS
- only way we can investigate phenomena.
VALIDITY
- lots of methods can be checked
GAIN INSIGHT/ UNDERSTANDING
- so rare, gives us detail on complications of the brain
ONLY INVESTIGATED WITH CASE
STUDY
- naturally occurring feature/illness
- cannot give it to someone
- naturally occuring feature / illness
• cannot give it to someone

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22
Q

case study
Example: impact of dementia on individual’s life

A

1) carry out structured observation
- see behaviour they show
2) psychometric test - cognitive ability
3) lab experiment - test co-ordination
4) interviews/ questionnaires
- friend or relatives
5) Correlate 2 or more variables (person’s alertness / No of hours they sleep)

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23
Q

Self-report techniques

A

methods of gathering dater where P’s provide info about themselves without interference from the experimenter
(attitudes, beliefs, opinions, emotions)

24
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

self report technique
- Ps record their thoughts, feeling and opinions ins a set of pre-determined questions.
- answer with written responses
- or choose from fixed pre-set items

25
Examples of closed questions
LIKERT SCALES - indicates their agreement with a statement using scale SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES - identifies a value which represents their strength of feelings FIXED CHOICE OPTION -includes a lift of options that respondents choose (week,month,year)
26
Quantitative data
- quick, easy to analyse - easier to establish trends x lacks depth and detail x limited range of responses
27
Qualitative data
- rich, in-depth and detailed - provide new ideas x difficult to analyse x hard to find patterns
28
Strengths of questionnaires
- easy to repeat (large sample sizes) -respondents more likely to reveal personal info (than face to face interview)
29
Weaknesses of questionnaires
VALIDITY -leading Qs -Ps forced to select As that don't reflect their real thoughts and feelings -different interpretations of the Qs SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS
30
What are interviews?
Self report methods -spoken not written -researcher asks Qs in real time -by phone -face to face -
31
Types of interviews
STRUCTURED -predetermined -all asked the same SEMI-STRUCTURED -S/US techniques -can explore As from interviewee UNSTRUCTURED -only first Q may be predetermined -following Qs determined by As of interviewee
32
VALIDITY of interviews
x construction of Qs- ambiguous/leading x social desirability -don't reflect truth x interviewer bias - unintentionally lead P to desired answer = reduced by double blind procedure
33
RELIABILITY of interviews
>Qs must be consistent >same options for answers >use test-retest method -same Q and I week later then correlate results >interpretations can be subjective =more than one interviewer =INTER-REATER RELIABILITY
34
Strengths of interviews
S - less interview skill needed U/SS - info accessed is more revealed ALL - in depth qualitative data collected and statistically analysed
35
Weaknesses of Interviews
SS/U - interviewer bias - more skill needed - less reliability if they ask different Qs ALL - reliability - same interviewer behaving differently on different occasions
36
Behavioural categories (observations)
OPERATIONALISE e.g aggression - hit, kick, scream 1) observable 2) precise 3) cover all possible behaviours 4) not overlap (smile or grin)
37
Designing an observation
TIME SAMPLING - pre agreed schedule >reduce number of observations (every 10 mins) X unrepresentative EVENT SAMPLING -tally every time anticipated behaviour occurs >useful if behaviour doesn't happen frequently X hard to record everything
38
Issues with validity (observations)
OBSERVER BIAS -2+ observers -double blind procedure ISSUES WITH CODING SYSTEM -PILOT- tweak categories -compare with concurrent (pre existing agreement)
39
Inter-observer reliability (observations) 1- miss detail 2- objective/unbias
1- familiarise with behavioural categories 2- observe the same behaviour at the same time 3- compare/discuss differences 4- conduct observation 5- analyse data/ calculate reliability 6- high reliability if both see the same behaviour at the same time
40
Participant observation
- researcher member of the group > in-depth date as they are close to Ps > unlikely to overlook or miss behaviour X objectivity affected
41
Non-participant observation
- researcher outside of group they're observing > more objective- not part of group X may not gain as much info X may miss behaviours
42
Covert observation
- observer not visible/ Ps unaware > behaviour more natural so higher ecological validity X less ethical- Ps can't give fully informed consent
43
Overt observation
- observer visible Ps aware > ethical- get informed consent X Ps change behaviour - social desirability bias
44
Structured observation
- use systems to organise observations > detailed X too much to record X observer bias - write down behaviours that meet their needs
45
Unstructured observation
- recording all behaviour seen > makes recording data easier > can be X important info may be missed if not identified as a category
46
Naturalistic observation
- behaviour occurs naturally > high ecological validity > findings generalised to real life X hard to replicate - low control of variables
47
Controlled observation
- within a structured environment > easier to replicate - control of variables X unnatural environment- behaviour is less natural X low ecological validity
48
How do you use correlations?
1- decide what you are measuring- operationalise them 2- measure each P on both co-variables 3- plot the values on a scatter graph to see if there's a relationship 4- carry out a statistical test (spearman's rho) to see if the relationship is significant or due to chance 5- this will produce a correlation co-efficient
49
What are correlation co-efficients
Measure from +1 to -1 - higher the number, stronger the relationship - use table of significance (due to chance?)
50
Correlational hypothesis
- needs to state the relationship you would expect to find different from experimental hypothesis because you are not looking for a difference between 2 conditions of the IV
51
CORRELATION DOES NOT = CAUSATION
- cannot be certain one co-variable caused another - a third variable may have caused a change in both = INTERVENING VARIABLE
52
What is a correlation?
A relationship between 2 variables - test whether they are related and how strongly - NO IV or DV =CO-VARIABLES
53
When do we use a correlational design?
To test a hypothesis about a relationship between 2 variables Or When looking for a relationship that would be impractical/ unethical to manipulate for an experiment
54
Strengths of correlational studies
- used when could be impractical or unethical - no manipulation = high ecological validity - easily repeated = reliability can be assessed - make use of existing data - relationships can be illustrated
55
Weaknesses of correlational studies
X lack generalisability X lack internal/ external validity X no cause and effect relationship- intervening variable

Psychology C2 (7 decks)

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