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Biology > Non-communicable diseases > Flashcards

Non-communicable diseases Flashcards

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1
Q

NCDs overview

A

long duration, slow onset, not transmissible from person to person

eg. cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes etc

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2
Q

risk factor definition

A

anything that increases the likelihood of developing a particular disease

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3
Q

Risk groups

A
  • Medical condition that inc risk
  • Behaviour eg smoking drinking
  • hereditary. eg family history
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4
Q

what are the

  • preexisting conditions
  • behavioural/lifestyle choices
  • hereditary/genetic factors

associated with strokes

A

conditions:

  • hypertension
  • high cholesterol

behaviour:
- excessive salt
- excess alcohol activity

hereditary
- sickle cell disease

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5
Q

what are the

  • preexisting conditions
  • behavioural/lifestyle choices
  • hereditary/genetic factors

associated with lung cancer?

A

conditions:
- chronic lung diseases

behaviour:
- smoking
- asbestos exposure
- radiation exposure

hereditary:
- 1st degree family member with lung cancer
- gender

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6
Q

what are the

  • preexisting conditions
  • behavioural/lifestyle choices
  • hereditary/genetic factors

associated with asthma?

A

conditions:
- another allergic condition

behaviour:
- exposure to allergens
- smoking

hereditary:
- blood relative with asthma

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7
Q

what are the

  • preexisting conditions
  • behavioural/lifestyle choices
  • hereditary/genetic factors

associated with type 2 diabetes?

A

conditions:
- aged 45+

  • gestational diabetes

behaviour:
- physical activity < 3 times a week
- being overweight

hereditary:
- blood relative with diabetes
- certain ethnicities

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8
Q

tumour def

A

a lump or growth of abnormal cells that undergo uncontrolled cell division

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9
Q

what is the definition of cancer?

A

a disease caused by usually caused by a mutation that causes uncontrolled cell division and leads to the formation of a tumour

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10
Q

4 typed of cancer

A
  • Carcinoma (external & internal body surfaces)
  • Sarcomas (supporting tissue)
  • Lymphomas (lymph nodes and tissue of IS)
  • Leukaemias (blood cells)
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11
Q

Benign tumour

A
  • Uncontrolled division
  • Slow growing, located within one specific tissue, cells do not break off & spread
  • not normally life threatening but can apply pressure
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12
Q

Malignant tumour

A
  • tumours grow rapidly
  • cells can and do break off & spread to other tissues
  • one metastic = cancer
  • primary tumour (original), secondary tumour
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13
Q

Control of cell division

A

proto-concogenes & tumour supressor genes

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14
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A
  • Controls normal cell growth
  • Stimulates cell division after stimulation from growth factor
  • If a mutation occurs, forms oncogene
  • ∴ DNA replication is triggered without the extra-cellular growth factor, causing abnormally high production of GF
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15
Q

Tumour supressor gene

A
  • TSG codes for production of protein that stops cell division & causes apoptosis
  • If mutation occurs, stops production of protein
  • Leads to continual division
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16
Q

outline the role of the c-Myc gene and explain [how its mutated form can cause cancer]

A

regulator gene on chromosome 8 responsible for regulating 15% of gene expression

[Myc constantly expressed –> unregulated expression of genes –> cell proliferation and cancer formation]

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17
Q

p53

A
  • codes for transcription factor
  • also has several anti-cancer effects
  • damaged dna is repaired by proteins activated by p53
  • Can stop cycle at g1 to repair damage
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18
Q

Mutagen

A
  • physical, biological or chemical agent that mutates DNA causing frequency of mutations to increase
    eg. UV radiation, alcohol, virus
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19
Q

Carcinogen

A

a mutagen that specifically leads to cancer as a result of uncontrolled cell division

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20
Q

outline the role of the Ras gene and explain [how its mutated form can cause cancer]

A
  • division stimulated by extra-cellular messengers

- [division stimulated by Ray gene without hormone, cell cycle inhibition removed]

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21
Q

Explain how smoking contributes to lung cancer [6]

A
  • tar is a known carcinogen which enters lung cells
  • destroyed cilia prevent removal of tar, hence have more time in contact with epithelial cells
  • enters nucleus
  • Proto-oncogene mutates to form oncogene
  • uncontrolled cell division
  • formation of tumour cells
22
Q

why does chance of cancer increase with age

A
  • more mutations
  • weaker immune system
  • more exposure to carcinogens
23
Q

how do viruses cause cancer

A
  • their DNA enters nucleus
  • causes mutation that affects protooncogenes
  • leads to uncontrolled cell vision
24
Q

X-rays

A
  • high energy radiation
  • x rays passes through soft tissue, film turns black
  • bones absorb x rays, film turns white

-quick and easy, cannot distinguish without further tests

25
Q

Mammography

A
  • low energy X rays
  • can detect small tumours in breast tissue
  • breast places between two plates which press firmly together
  • mammogram examined to identify any areas of calcification

-quick, non invasive, cannot distinguish without further tests

26
Q

CT scan

A
  • X rays passing through the body at different angles
  • Gives detailed image (tomogram) of the internal structure of the body
  • Patient lies down continuously moved through a rotating x-ray beam
  • on the opposite side of the body x rays are detected
  • Gives more detail than standard x-ray (3D image)

-non invasive, costly, can’t distinguish without further tests

27
Q

MRI

A
  • Magnetic resonance imaging
  • single scan can give multiple pictures from many angles
  • Patient has to lie very still, no metal
  • Magnet creates magnetic field that lines up the protons in hydrogen atoms
  • beam of radio waves spin protons and signal emitted is converted into detailed 3D image

+ non-invasive; good for soft tissues
- costly; can’t distinguish without further tests

28
Q

PET scan

A
  • produces 3d images of functional processes in the Boyd
  • uses tracer (fluorodeoxyglucose most common)
  • FGS injected to the patient prior to scan. Uptake is a marker for uptake of glucose. cancerous cells metabolise faster than normal, so absorb more FGS
  • Pet scan detects radiation given off by tracer

+ accurate; fine detail; 3D coloured images
- can’t distinguish without further tests

29
Q

Biopsies

A
  • Removal of a sample of tissue
  • send to lab to be analysed and to distinguish between cancerous and non-cancerous
  • Bone marrow biopsies- diagnose blood cancers, detected cancers that start somewhere & spread to BM
  • Endoscopic biopsies- smear test
  • Needle biopsies- used when tumour felt through skin

+ can distinguish
- invasive

30
Q

Blood tests

A
  • Diagnostic and monitoring purposes
  • CAA125- high levels may mean ovarian cancer
  • P (prostate-specific antigen)- detect prostrate cancer

+ effective diagnostic tool
- invasive

31
Q

Ultrasound

A
  • high-frequency sound waves
  • handheld transducer moved over skin which delivers sound waves which reflect off organs and are detected

+ very safe, cheap, portable
- can’t distinguish without further tests

32
Q

what is screening

A

testing people who are known to be at risk of a certain condition before symptoms start
Aim= enable better outcome for individual

eg. breast, prostrate. cervical, bowel

33
Q

Reliability

A

not 100% reliable or accurate
However, potentially reduce the risk of developing the condition if individual acts on advice given & make appropriate lifestyle changes

34
Q

False negative may be due to

A
  • cancer doesn’t show up x-ray, may be too small, human error
35
Q

False positives may be due to

A

increased number of screening, human error

36
Q

Suggest how isoflavone may affect action of oestrogen

A
  • has similar shape to oestrogen
  • hence complementary to receptor
  • prevents oestrogen from binding
37
Q

sensitive vs specific test

A

sensitive- may pick it up early on

specific- only picks it up when cancer is present

38
Q

biological marker examples

A

protein, glycoprotein, glycolipid

39
Q

features of cam that allow growth factors to bind

A

proteins & glycoproteins act as receptors, complementary

40
Q

Breast cancer genetics test

A
  • BRCA1 & BRCA2
  • 40-90% of women carrying mutations in BRCA genes will develop cancer
  • Risk increases with age
41
Q

BRCA1 & BRCA2

A
  • These genes produce tumour suppressor proteins
  • Proteins repair dna
  • mutations= failure to repair dna
  • other genes eg TP53 + PTEN
42
Q

Who can have genetic screening for breast cancer

A
  • Strong family history
  • Mutation research carried out on living relative with cancer to determine faulty gene
  • then, a faulty gene is identified in an individual ie predictive testing
  • This process is expensive for NHS
43
Q

Bowel Cancer

A
  • Hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer= type of bowel cancer caused by a mutated gene
  • Mutation in genes which repair DNA
44
Q

Benefits & negatives of genetics testing

A 
\+
relief from uncertainty
can make informed decisions about future
lifestyle changes 
inform individual to make appropriate treatment decisions

-
anger, anxiety, depression
-which treatment to have
-absence from work etc

45
Q

Treating cancer- surgery

A

Breast:
Lumpectomy- removal of tissue and surrounding tissue
Masectomy- removal of entire breast. Lymph nodes may also be removed

Colon:
Colectomy- removal of part of colon containing tumour
Ends of colon are joined back together by anastomosis. May need temporary stoma

46
Q

Treating cancer- Chemo

A
  • can be used prior to surgery to shrink the tumour. Or after surgery to ensure all cells are removed. Or to treat cancer which has spread
  • Uses chemicals that are toxic to dividing cells
  • Cancer cells divide more rapidly than normal cells, so it has more effect on them
  • But can affect whole body rather than just cancer cells eg. bone marrow cells, hair follicles etc as these divide faster and more regularly

symptoms: hair loss, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting

47
Q

Treating cancer- Radiotherapy

A
  • uses ionising radiation to destroy cancer cells
  • Destroys actively growing cell more than others
  • causes damage to dna. especially if going through SMR
  • can be targeted accurately to tumour
  • can be used before or after chemotherapy
48
Q

Treating cancer- Immunotherapy

A
  • anticancer drugs can be attached to monoclonal antibodies which bind specifically to cancer cells
  • Or can be tagged with enzyme that converts inactive form of cytoxic drug into active form
  • ONLY attach to specific cancer cells, so can be administered at high dose
  • ADEPT= antibody directed enzyme prodrug therapy
  • eg. Herceptin- user for breast cancer. Has complementary binding sites for a specific protein receptor on cam of breast cancer cells. Binds to it and stops cells dividing rapidly
49
Q

Treating cancer- Complementary therapies

A
  • Focuses on making person feel better during other treatments
  • Reduces side effects
  • eg, reiki, meditation, acupuncture, hypnotherapy
  • Positive mental attitude can have positive impact on improving effectiveness of immune system
50
Q

Treating cancer- Hormone related therapies

A

-Tamoxifen- used to treat breast cancer
-Oestrogen stimulates gene transcription:
Diffuses through csm, binds to a specific receptor, allostery, receptor complex binds to coregulator, diffuses to nucleus, binds with chromatin, transcription occurs, increases growth and division of breast cancer cells
-Tomoxifen binds to oestrogen receptor. Complex still forms
-But, It does not undergo allostery, so blocks binding of coregulator, no transcription occurs

-Effective for some types of breast cancer in short term. After 2-3 years, woman can develop resistance. So different drug needs to be prescribed to reduce oestrogen levels

Biology (18 decks)

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