NML Flashcards
What did Aristotle believe about purpose?
Aristotle believed that everyone has a purpose and that people achieve eudaimonia (happiness) by fulfilling telos (purpose).
Eudaimonia
Happiness / human flourishing
Telos
The end, or purpose, of something
What idea is NML based on?
We live in a universe with a purpose and nature reveals this purpose. We need to act in accordance with nature to fulfil that greater purpose.
What does NML say about what is natural?
What is natural is good, as it is fulfilling the purpose of the universe.
Which of the four tiers of law does nature reveal?
Eternal law
What did Aquinas believe about good in humans?
He believed that we all have the natural inclination to do good
What are the four tiers of law?
Eternal law, Divine law, Natural law and Human law
Eternal law
The absolute and eternal part of Natural law. It is part of the mind of God - his unchanging reason. God’s law is unchanging and universal. The Eternal law remains the same whatever the culture, society and political situation. It is absolute and not relative to different people or situations. God plants the Eternal law in every person’s rational soul.
Divine law
This is revealed to human beings through divine revelation (the Bible). God sends out information about the Eternal law through the Divine law. The commands and teachings found in the Bible include The 10 Commandments, The Beatitudes, the Sermon on the Mount, the teachings in the parables etc. This sacred scripture, revealed by God, is God teaching human beings how to live.
Natural law
This enables human beings to understand God’s Eternal law, even if they have not read the Bible. Natural law allows humans to perceive Eternal law through the application of human reason - through reflection on the world. This marks human beings apart from animals and makes God’s Eternal law accessible to the whole of humanity.
Human law
This is our response to these messages from God in reason and in revelation. Human laws are the customs and practices of society. Aquinas is clear that Human law is only a proper law if it is good and in accordance with the Divine and Natural law.
What is NML about, with regards to precepts?
NML theory is the idea that from observing nature, we can derive a key precept, five primary precepts and an unlimited number of secondary precepts.
What is the key precept in NML?
The idea that we should do good and avoid evil.
What are the 5 Primary Precepts?
- Preservation of life
- Ordering of society
- Worship of God
- Education of children
- Reproduction
How can we distinguish between good and bad?
Anything that goes against the 5 Primary Precepts is doing bad, but anything that works to enhance them is doing good.
How can we work out secondary precepts?
Through using our reason and rational reflection
Real good
Something that is good according to Natural law
Apparent good
A mistake; you wanted to do good, but you ended up not doing so.
The Doctrine of Double Effect
If doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect, it’s ethically acceptable to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn’t intended
What did Aquinas believe about the Doctrine of Double Effect?
What matters is the effect intended - it’s about the aim and the outcome rather than the act itself. Opposite view to Kant (who teaches that everything we do should be with the view that it could become a universal law). This doctrine states that if you do something which has an unintended consequence, you can’t be held responsible or blamed.
Example of the Doctrine of Double Effect
If you were attacked and used self-defence which killed the attacker, even though you broke the Primary Precept of preserving life, you would not be blamed, for the intention of your action was not to kill them, but to defend yourself and preserve your own life.
NML: strengths
- seen as a clear-cut approach to morality that establishes common rules. It gives clarity + firm moral principles
- the basic principles of NML are found in cultures across the world. The Primary Precepts are also very universal (e.g., the need for reproduction - if we don’t reproduce, the species won’t survive)
- has very clear principles, but is not as rigid and absolutist as it may first appear. It gives us a bit more scope + empowers the individual - we use our own reason.
- it supports human rights and is quite an empowering theory
- it focuses on and values life. It encourages people to fulfil their purpose and flourish. It concentrates on human character.
- it looks at the end result (e.g., through the Doctrine of Double Effect) and also considers real + apparent goods.
NML: weaknesses
- is it out of date?
- is there actually a purpose?
- is there actually a God?
- G.E. Moore questioned is what is natural good?
- Hume argued that just because we see a fact, how does that translate into a moral value?
- J.S. Mill gave the idea that nature kills - should we be encouraging some of the things that take place in nature?
- what about cultural relativism? In some cultures, certain things are seen as natural and good, whereas in other cultures, these same things are not accepted. Is there just one truth eternal? Is nature universally seen in the same way?
- is it a Christian theory or is it a bit more open than that?
Deontological
Produces rules and duties
Absolutist
The theory is absolute and unchanging
Synderesis
Inborn knowledge of the Primary Precepts of moral action / the idea of following the good and avoiding the evil
Synderesis Principle
The moral consciousness of every person which directs them to do good and restrain from evil
Phronesis
A type of wisdom or intelligence relevant to practical wisdom
Objective morality
The belief that morality is universal
What did Aquinas believe about real and apparent goods?
Aquinas did not believe that a human being could deliberately do evil. He believed that people chose either real or apparent goods.
Would Aquinas think that Hitler was doing good, given his claim that no human being could be deliberately evil?
Aquinas would say that Hitler aimed for an apparent good in his policy of mass murder.
Thomas Aquinas
1225 - 1274
Who was Aquinas influenced by?
Aristotle
What did Aristotle say about the beginning of the universe and how does this link to Aquinas’ view of telos?
Aristotle believed that there was a Prime Mover responsible for setting the universe in motion and Aquinas developed this idea, seeing God as the Prime Mover. Aquinas believed that the ultimate end cannot be found in this world, but through using our reason and flourishing, we can reach God after death, achieving our telos.
What is Aquinas concerned with?
Both the acts and reasons for them - he believed that intention matters
What was Aquinas’ goal-orientated view of nature influenced by?
Aristotle’s idea of the 4 causes
What did Aquinas believe was innate to humans?
- a natural inclination to know the truth about God
- the desire to do good and avoid evil
- the Primary Precepts (syderesis)
What movement was Aquinas a part of?
The Scholasticism Movement, which tried to harmonise Aristotelian thought with Christianity
Polis
Within the community
What did Aquinas believe about where telos is achieved?
Aquinas thought that eudaimonia is achieved within community (polis), but can only be fully achieved after death with God (Beatific Vision)
The Beatific Vision
Direct self-communication of God to the individual person
Telos: strengths
- science and common observation shows that everything has a purpose (e.g., the eye)
- Aristotle and Aquinas’ emphasis on eudaimonia within the polis creates a community-orientated ethic, rather than self-centred ethics
Telos: weaknesses
- Richard Dawkins would argue that apparent design and purpose is just the consequence of natural selection
- Jean-Paul Sartre would argue that existence precedes essence = unlike objects, we are not born with a purpose
- Kai Nielson argues in favour of cultural relativism. There is not one unified human nature, but human nature is changeable over time and dependent on culture.
- is it really justifiable to apply the fixed ideas around objects to humans? Are humans not different from fixed ideas around objects?
- NML assumes a fixed, immutable, unchanging end for all things that have been created; however, some do not see the universe as something that has an intention or design behind it.
- it can be viewed as outdated - surely not having fixed sexual orientations in society and being transgender, for example, undermine the idea that there is a single, pre-determined end.
NML
A deontological theory based on behaviour that accords with the given laws or moral rules (e.g., given by God) that exist independently of human societies and systems.
Primary Precept: Preserve life
Life is most precious
Primary Precept: Ordered society
Live in a lawful society where it is possible to follow all of the primary precepts
Primary Precept: Worship God
God is the source of eternal law, and God has sent this law to humanity through divine law and natural law.
Primary Precept: Education
To teach people about God, his eternal law, natural law, divine law and the primary precepts
Primary Precept: Reproduction
To ensure that life continues as in God’s intention and as is necessary for the continuation of society
