Nigeria Flashcards
Describe Nigeria’s population size
It is the most populous state in Africa and one of the largest countries in the world
The National Question
The dilemma of how Nigeria should be governed, or even if it should remain one state.
How many Nigerian constitutions have there been?
8 since 1914; most recent in 1999
Constitutionalism
The acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles
Describe Nigeria’s relationship w constitutionalism
Elusive; constitutions come and go and are often disobeyed
What is the one source of stability and organization in Nigeria?
The military
Which were the only two presidents in recent years not to have been affiliated w the military?
Jonathan and Yar’ Adua
Does the Nigerian govt have legitimacy (as of present day)?
No; many citizens have little to no trust in their leaders
Which two Generals are associated w corruption and ignorance to the Rule of Law?
Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993) and Sani Abacha (1993-1998)
Hisbah
A police force charged w enforcing Islamic morality
What is an important source of legitimacy in North Nigeria?
Sharia law
Describe pre-colonial trade
The Niger River and ocean as well as connections across the Sahara allowed contact/trade
Describe pre-colonial Islam in Nigeria
Islam was acquired via trade to the North; sharia governed politics
Describe pre-colonial political organization
Kinship-based, especially in the south (north had tendency toward larger states); did not often go beyond level of village
Describe political traditions of pre-colonial Nigeria
Complex and far from clear-cut; some centralized kingdoms; some trading states
Describe the pre-colonial relationship w democracy in Nigeria
Principle of accountability was accepted; rulers were meant to represent and seek advice from the people they ruled
How is African/Nigerian colonialism different from that of the rest of the world?
Scramble for Africa came much later (as did independence in Africa; contrast Mexican independence in 1821 w Nigerian in 1960)
What type of rule did the British bring into Nigeria?
Authoritarian, indirect rule; appt local chiefs whose responsibility was only to the British
What kind of economy did Britain bring to Nigeria?
Interventionist; chiefs trained to reach economic goals and citizens expected to passively accept rulers’ actions
What religious and social ideas did the British bring to Nigeria?
Individualism-> chiefs thought about themselves; Christianity->created a split btwn Christian south and Muslim north
How did the British intensify cleavages?
Pitted three groups–Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba–by giving reward to some (education, bureaucratic jobs) and not to others. Gave more power to elites.
What forms of government has Independent Nigeria experimented with?
They replaced a parliamentary style with a presidential system after realizing that ethnic divisions made identifying a majority party/allowing a PM to have authority difficult.
Does modern Nigeria have 3 branches?
Yes
Does modern Nigeria have checks-and-balances?
Theoretically, tho Pres has gone inconsistently checked
How has democracy intensified ethnic conflict?
Large northern Hausa-Fulani dominated parliamentary govt and formed coalition w southeast Igbo to ensure majority; rivalries grew among Yoruba.
Biafra
Seccessionist state in southeastern Nigeria
How has Nigeria remained together, largely, post-independence?
Military rule
What vice has characterized rule in Nigeria?
corruption
What organizational system does Nigeria rely on to govern?
Federalist, though military leaders have no allowed any sovereignty of sub-governments
What is the capital city of Nigeria?
Abuja
On what resource has Nigeria developed a dependency?
Oil controls the entire economy
Patron-clientelism (prebendalism)
The practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients–corrupt; characterizes Nigerian political culture
How has the govt interacted w the civil society?
Since colonial rule, govt has tried to control all aspects of life, but has not been totally successful; ethnic/religious associations, prof/labor groups, NGOS, etc have shaped society
Describe Nigerian tensions btw tradition and modernity
Colonialist history holds it back while pushing it forward; values established pre-colonialism and in the colonial era conflict
Describe religious conflict in Nigeria
Northern muslims and southern Christians argue about the role of sharia law in the govt
How has geography influenced Nigeria?
Oil = main export. Land v ocean trade (precolonial). Divided ethnic groups–six zones
Fulani
Muslim group that came to northern Nigeria thru jihad–holy war (1808)
Sokoto Caliphate
Muslim state established by Fulani; encompasses most of North
Describe precolonial southern Nigeria’s relationship with Europe
Atlantic slave trade brought Africans to new world; Christianity spread.
How did the British interact w the northern area of Nigeria?
Left the area’s govt intact; already organized into political hierarchies according to Islamic tradition
Describe colonialist Nigeria’s relationship w education.
Europeans influenced western education; missionaries; elites became more removed from the people. Few northerners had access to education–>deepened cleavage
Olusegun Obasanjo
Military dictator who willingly stood down for the democractically-elected Shegari (who was later forced out of office by Buhari)
What is a trend of government type in modern Nigeria?
Military will take over govt when Nigeria is unstable, and promise to give it over to a democracy when it is more stable.
What makes democratization so difficult for Nigeria?
- Income gap, uneven distribution of wealth
- Decimated by HIV/AIDS–>failing economy
- Lower literacy rate than world average
Nigeria has had to contend with ethnic-based civil wars like what other country?
Russia : Chechnya as Nigeria : Biafra
How is Nigeria ethnically cleavaged?
Up to 400 dif ethnic groups w their own langs; three largest live separately, have no contact, their own languages, and have very little in common.
How is Nigeria religiously cleavaged?
1/2 Muslim > 2/5 Christian > 1/10 Native religion. Religious arguments btw Christian and Muslim rooted in preferential treatment given by British to south as well as the role of sharia in lawmaking.
How does Nigeria’s religious cleavages compare w that of other countries?
Soviet Union and China, ethnic tensions managed by unifying ideology, but in Nigeria, ideology furthers ethnic cleavages.
How is Nigeria regionally cleavaged?
Three Federated Regions and North v South
How is Nigeria cleavaged wrt urban v rural?
Political organizations/interest groups/newspapers/electronic media exist mostly within cities.
How is Nigeria cleavaged among class lines?
very uneven distribution of wealth; colonial byproduct (British gave power and $$ to elites)
Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP)
Founded by Ken Saro-Wiwa in 1990s; worked to apply national laws for the Ognoi in the Niger Delta and hold foreign-operated oil companies to environmental standards.
National Union of Petroleum and Gas Workers (NUPENG)
Trade union and influential voice for workers in petroleum industry
How have formal interest groups and informal voluntary associations influenced postcolonial Nigeria?
Very influential; can encourage both unity and fragmentation
Why has voting behavior been difficult to track in Nigeria?
Many elections have been cancelled or postponed by the military and others have been fraudulent
Describe political parties in Nigeria
Numerous and fluid with most formed around charisma of candidates
Describe the Nigerian attitude toward the govt
Cynical and distrustful
How do most Nigerians feel about the economy and the govts handling of it?
“Very bad or fairly bad”
Transparency International
A private organization that complies statistics about corruption in countries around the world
Where does Nigeria usually rank in the Transparency International Corruptions Index
Very (very) low
Nuhu Ribadu
Was the head of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), a govt organization designed to fight corruption
What has been a major target of grievances?
International oil companies
How did Goodluck Jonathan’s election in 2011 lead to protest?
His presidency broke the chain in which a northerner and a southern alternated w/in the presidency. Boko Haram tried to undermine his authority.
How has the govt responded to Boko Haram?
Launched a campaign against them by Pres Jonathan –> many people died, blackout occured
What is the structure of the Nigerian govt, formally?
Democratic, federalist
What are political parties based on in Nigeria?
Regions and ethnicities
What kind of party system does Nigeria have?
Multi-party
The People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
One of the better-established parties; party of Obasanjo
All Progressive Congress
Alliance of four opposition parties–Action Congress of Nigeria, the Congress for Progressive Change, the All-Nigeria People’s Party, the Progressives Grand Alliance
Independent National Election Commision (INEC)
Register citizens with parties
What must parties do to qualify to run candidates for pres and leg elections?
Earn at least 5% of the votes in 2/3 of the states in local elections–> limited running parties to three
On what three levels do citizens vote in Nigeria?
Local, state, national.
Who do citizens vote for on the national level?
President, representatives to the House of Representatives, and senators from their states.
What happens if a president does not receive an outright majority in an election?
A second ballot election may take place
How must a presidential candidate qualify regionally?
They must receive at least 1/4 of all votes cast in 2/3 of the states.
How many sit in the Senate?
109 senators, three from each of 36 states, and one from Abuja (fed capital territory)
How are senators elected?
Directly, by popular vote
How many sit in the House of Representatives?
360
How are representatives elected?
From single-member districts by plurality vote
Who did Nigeria elect president in 2011?
Goodluck Jonathan
Why did Jonathan postpone the 2015 election, according to some critics?
To buy time to sway support from Buhari (by working against Boko Haram, mostly)
Who was elected in 2015?
Buhari
How did the Babangida regime limit the influence of labor unions?
Corporatism
Nigeria Labor Congress
Labor union that successfully orchestrated a general strike of workers in cities across Nigeria to protest hike in fuel prices/taxes.
How have business interests functioned in Nigeria?
Tended to work in collaboration with the military and shared spoils of corruption with the elite classes.
What is the most significant Nigerian human rights movement?
That against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha.
Describe Nigeria’s newspapers
Tradition of a well-developed, independent press.
How do newspapers conflict?
They reflect ethnic divisions
What is the main source of information for most Nigerians?
Radio
Does Nigeria have a three branch system?
Theoretically, but the executive has dominated policymaking in reality.
How many state governments are there in Nigeria?
36
How do state governments function in Nigeria?
They, along w local govts, are almost entirely dependent on the central govt; federalism basically nullified
Why did Nigeria abandon the parliamentary system?
The legislature was so fragmented ethnically that to elect a prime minister with enough authority to rule was untenable
How many military leaders has Nigeria had?
7
What do most military leaders promise to do for the country?
They promise a ‘transition to democracy’
Patrimonialism
How generals rule; the pres = the head of a patron-client system and dispenses govt jobs and resources as rewards to supports
What happened to civil service post-independence?
Same system continued over, but has grown tremendously in past decades; based on patron-client system.
Parasatals
Corporations owned by the state/designated to provide commercial and social welfare services
What do parasatals do?
commonly provide public utilities such as water, electricity and public transit OR control major industries, etc
How does Nigeria have corporatism?
Parasatals provide state corporatism
Are parasatals efficient?
No–they are highly corrupt and inefficient
What is Nigeria’s legislature known as?
The National Assembly
What kind of legislature does Nigeria have?
Bicameral
What are the term limits for representatives and senators?
four-year renewable terms
How are senators elected?
Popular vote
How are representatives elected?
Plurality vote
How many representatives are elected?
360 members from single-member districts
How much power has the legislature had in Nigeria?
Very little, especially under military government
Describe devolution of Nigerian court system post independence
Had a great deal of autonomy in early years, but military rule has ravaged the court systems
Does judicial review exist in Nigeria?
Theoretically, yes
What is the structure of Nigeria’s court system?
Court structures exist at both federal and state levels, with the highest court in the land being the Supreme Court
Mshood Abiolao
The winner of the 1993 election annulled by Babangida
What are the two most important supreme court cases?
Those of Mshood Abiolao’s election and Ken Saro-Wiwa’s hanging; it is believed that justice was not served in both cases
How has the military been subject to discord?
Military in govt vs military in barracks cleavage
What is the one institution in Nigeria that is “truly national in character”?
The military
Loyalty pyramid
Created by senior govt officials supporting a broader base of loyal junior officers
Where have most oil revenues gone?
Into the pockets of govt officials; most Nigerians have not profited at all
How is Nigeria a rentier state?
Receive income by exporting oil and leasing out oil fields to foreign companies
Informal economy
Unreported incomes from small-scale trade and subsistence agriculture; most Nigerians participate in ~
How does Nigeria have international leverage?
OPEC membership
When does Nigeria’s economy suffer?
When oil prices go down
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta
Wants oil money going to the people of the Delta states; has resorted to violence in the past
How has Nigeria interacted with disease recently?
Boko Haram’s birth has led to an increase in polio reports
Is Nigeria’s economy increasing or decreasing?
Increasing
Economic structural adjustment
Begun with the support of the IMF; sought to restructure and diversify Nigerian economy (away from oil)
Why hasn’t Nigeria’s economy suffered as much as others since 2008?
Banking system improved under Obasanjo; paid off sizable debts
How has Nigeria provided electric power?
It hasn’t, really! Pres Jonathan tried to put grid transmission in govt hands, but privately manage, but investment has been discouraged
Federal character
The goal in Nigeria; Constitution has put provisions in place to support it (however, this has only further divided it)
“true federalism” movement
Involves devolution of power to local govts; generally not supported by Northerners as there haven’t been enough resources to go around
How has democracy begun to grow in the three branches?
Some checks and balances between government branches; some independent decisions in the courts
How has the media aided in the promotion of democracy/
It acts as an independent watchdog
How has democracy functioned in the executive branch
presidents peacefully seceed power to one another
