New Deals (1933 - 1945) Flashcards
1
Q
Describe F. Roosevelt’s policies in the 1932 election
A
- Government intervention
- End of the gold standard
- Reform and regulation of business
- Hope and confidence should be inspired (‘Happy days are here again’ was used as the campaign song)
2
Q
Describe how F Roosevelt was vague in his 1932 election promises
A
- In San Francisco he promised economic regulation would only be used as a last resort where as in Georgia he promised ‘bold experimentation’ to control the depression
- He did not want to cause alarm in the business world and was also unsure as to how he would proceed with economic policy
3
Q
Describe F Roosevelt’s personality in the 1932 election
A
- Good relations with the press
- Charismatic
- An experienced politician
Captured public imagination and used radio effectively:
- National radio address April 1932, he called for government to help ‘the forgotten man’
4
Q
Describe the failings of Hoover during the 1932 election
A
- Hoover was too busy in office, fighting the depression, to focus on his campaign
- Poor relations with the press
- Un-charismatic
- Overall, the public were voting for change
5
Q
Describe the results of the 1932 election
A
- Roosevelt won the biggest majority since Abraham Lincoln in 1864
- However, he still only won 57% of the popular vote
- Few really knew what Roosevelt stood for
- Political columnist Walter Lippmann, Roosevelt was ‘a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president’
6
Q
What were The Hundred Days?
A
- In his first speech in power F Roosevelt announced a whirlwind of interventionist policies
- F Roosevelt called a special session of Congress in March 1933, which would become known as The Hundred Days
7
Q
Describe the Emergency Banking Act 1933 (1ND)
A
- Passed 9th March 1933, during the Hundred Days
- Enforced a ‘banking holiday’ lasting 4 days
- Federal Reserve was given power to issue currency and to supervise the reopening of banks
- Roosevelt gave his first radio ‘fireside chat’, telling people their money would be safe and then the public started depositing money money in the banks again
- By the beginning of April, $1 billion in currency had been returned to bank deposits and the crisis was over
8
Q
Describe the two main aims of the New Deal
A
- Relief and recovery - helping victims of the depression and trying to get the economy going again
- Reform and regulation - solving the systemic problems that had caused the depression in the first place
9
Q
How many Alphabet Agencies were there?
A
59 new agencies were set up between 1933 to 1938
10
Q
Describe how agriculture was valued in the New Deal
A
Given higher priority than industrial recovery:
- 30% of labour force worked in agriculture
- If agricultural workers could afford more, industry would be stimulated
- Agricultural Adjustment Act, May 1933
- Tennessee Valley Authority, May 1933
11
Q
Describe the Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 (1ND)
A
- The Government would subsidise farmers to reduce their acreage and production voluntarily
- By producing less, prices and farmers incomes would increase
- Set up Agricultural Adjustment Agency
12
Q
Describe the Agricultural Adjustment Agency (1ND)
A
- It would pay farmers to reduce their production of ‘staple’ items - corn, cotton, milk, pork, rice, tobacco and wheat
- The programme would be self-financing by a tax placed on companies that processed food
13
Q
Describe how the Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 reduced overproduction of cotton
A
- 1933, unsold cotton in the US exceeded the annual world consumption of American cotton
- 1933, farmers had planted 400,000 acres more than in 1932
- Under this act, 10.5 million acres were ploughed under, price of cotton went from 6.5 cents per pound to 10 cents per pound 1932-1933
14
Q
How effective was the Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933?
A
- Drought helped make the 1933 wheat crop the poorest since 1896 and agreements were reached to limit the acreage in subsequent years
- Total farm income rose from $4.5 billion in 1932 to $6.9 billion in 1935
- Popularity of the AAA was high among farmers (95% of tobacco growers signed up)
15
Q
Describe how the agricultural Adjustment Act reduced overproduction of meat
A
Beef:
- Western ranchers sought to bring beef cattle under the production of the AAA in 1934
- By 1935, the Government had purchased 8.3 million head of cattle
- In return, ranchers agreed to reduce breeding cows by 20% in 1937
Pork:
- 6 million piglets were bought and slaughtered
- Many carcasses were processed and fed to the unemployed
- Public outcry was still enormous
16
Q
Describe the Tennessee Valley Authority 1933 (1ND)
A
Set up to deal with underdevelopment and poverty in the Tennessee Valley
The TVA had several major tasks:
- To construct 20 dams to control the regular flooding
- To develop ecological schemes to stop soil erosion (tree planting)
- Encourage farmers to use more efficient means of cultivation, such as contour ploughing
- Provide jobs by setting up fertiliser manufacture factories
- Develop welfare and education programmes
- Produce hydro-electric power (existing electricity reached only 2 per 100 farms)
Saw residents increase their average income by 200% in 1929 to 1949
17
Q
Describe the situation in banking at the time of F Roosevelt’s election
A
- 1932, banks were closing at the rate of 40 per day
- In October 1932, the Governor of Nevada declared a bank holiday and closed every bank in the state
- By the time of Roosevelt’s inauguration, banks were closed in many states
18
Q
Describe the Glass-Steagall Act 1933 (1ND)
A
- Banks that relied on small-scale depositors were banned from the type of investment banking that fuelled the 1920’s speculation
- Bank officials were not allowed to take personal loans from their own banks
- Authority over open-market operation were transferred from the Federal Reserve Banks to the Federal Reserve Board in Washington
- Individual bank deposits were to be insured against bank failure up to $2,500, with insurance given by new agency, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
19
Q
Describe the Truth-in-Securities Act 1933 (1ND)
A
Required brokers to offer clients realistic info about the securities they were selling
20
Q
Describe the Securities Act 1934 (1ND)
A
- Set up a new agency, the Securities Exchange Commission
- Would oversee stock market activities to prevent fraudulent activities such as insider dealing
21
Q
Describe industrial recovery
A
- This was a priority but only had limited success due to the scale of industrial collapse
- Economy grew 10% from 1933-1936
Unemployment still at 14%
22
Q
Describe the National Industry Recover Act, June 1933 (1ND)
A
Came in two parts, the National Recovery Administration and the Public Works Administration
23
Q
Describe the National Recovery Administration (1ND)
A
- Headed by General Johnson
- Suspension of anti-trust legislation for 2 years
- ‘Buy Now’ campaign in October 1933 to encouraged people to spend and stimulate production
- Unsuccessfully advocated for 10% wage increase and 10 hour cut in the working week
- Many argue that this was largely a failure and just gave large firms the chance to indulge in unfair practices
- May 1935, Supreme Court ruled the NRA unconstitutional
24
Q
Describe the Public Works Administration (1ND)
A
- Headed by Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes
- Was funded with $3.3 billion and aimed to develop business and the economy through spending
- PWA put thousands of people to work and built nearly 13,000 schools and 50,000 miles of roads
Particularly helpful in the West:
- Built dams to irrigate former semi-desert land and produce electricity
- Created 4 National Parks
25
Describe the Civil Works Administration 1933 (1ND)
- **$400 million** grant from the PWA to provide emergency relief to the unemployed in the **winter of 1933-34**
- Put **4 million people** to work on public works projects
- Was closed down in March, when the winter was over
26
Describe the Federal Emergency Relief Act, May 1933 (1ND)
- Established the Federal Emergency Relief Administration
- Run by Harry Hopkins
- Was given $500 million to be divided equally among the states to help provide for the unemployed
- The Act said each state should set up a FERA office and organise relief programmes
- It should raise money through borrowing, tax rises or other means
27
Describe opposition to and limitations of the Federal Emergency Relief Act 1933 (1ND)
- When states such as Kentucky and Ohio refused to comply, Hopkins threatened to deny them any federal monies
- Workers were refused office space and caseloads numbered in the thousands
- Delays and hostility towards those seeking aid
- 1935, FERA was paying about $25 per month to the average family on relief while the average monthly minimum wage for subsistence was around $100
28
Describe the Civilian Conservation Corps 1933 (1ND)
- Unemployed men between the ages **17 and 24** were recruited to work in national forests, parks and public lands
- Corps was organised along military lines but with tasks designated by the Departments of the Interior and Agriculture
- CCC installed 65,100 miles of telephone lines, spent **4.1 million man-hours fighting forest fires** and planted **1.3 billion trees**
29
Why did Roosevelt create the Second New Deal?
- The climate in the new Congress was for action and Roosevelt wanted to prevent this
- Roosevelt was increasingly frustrated by the Supreme Court overturning his New Deal legislation
- Roosevelt was increasingly frustrated by the the opposition of the wealthy and big business
30
Describe the Work Progress Administration (2ND)
- Recruited people for public works projects
- At any one time it had around 2 million employees
- By 1941, 20% of the nation’s workforce had found employment in it
- Wages were around $52 per month, more than relief but less than in private industry
- WPA was not allowed to compete for contracts with private firms or build private houses
- Did build 1,000 airport landing fields, 8,000 school and hospitals and 12,000 playgrounds
- It was not supposed to engage in large-scale projects but did so anyway (Responsible for the cutting of the Lincoln Tunnel and the building of Fort Knox in Kentucky)
31
Why was Roosevelt hesitant to get involved in labour relations legislation?
- Mistrust of labour unions, particularly among the Southern Democrats whose support he needed
- He did not want to further upset big business
32
Describe the Wagner-Connery National Labor Relations Act 1935 (2ND)
The Act guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions:
- They could choose their union through a secret ballot
- A new 3 man National Labour Relations Board was set up to ensure fair play
- Employers were forbidden to use unfair practices such as discrimination against unionists
This effectively committed federal government to an important labour relations role but Roosevelt did not see it like this and continued to take a back seat in labour relations
33
Describe the Social Security Act 1935 (2ND)
- First federal measure of direct help as a worker’s right and would be built upon in the future
- Provided for old-age pensions to be funded by employer and employee contributions
- Unemployment insurance to be paid for by payroll taxes levied on both employers and employees
- Pension scheme was a federal programme but states would control unemployment insurance
34
Describe the limitations of the Social Security Act 1935
Generally inadequate to meet the needs of the poor:
- Pensions were paid at between $10 to $85 per month according to the contribution of the recipients and were not to be paid until 1940
- Unemployment benefit was max $18 per week for 16 weeks
35
Describe the Banking Act 1935 (2ND)
- Intended to give federal government control of banking in the US
- Control of banking was removed from private banks to central government and the centre of financial management shifted from New York to Washington
36
Describe how the New Deal failed women
- Did not tend to vote as a group so were rarely appealed to by politicians
- 1933 Economy Act forbade members of the same family from working for the federal government. 75% of people who lost jobs under this measure were women.
- NRA codes allowed unequal wages
- Some agencies, such as the CCC, banned women
- On average in the 1930s, women earned half the average wage of men
37
Describe how the New Deal failed African Americans
- NRA codes allowed for black americans to be paid less than their white counterparts
- The CCC was run by a racist Southerner who did not advertise the organisation to black men and ensured that those who did join faced strict segregation
- Anti-lynching bills reached congress in 1934 and 1937 but Roosevelt did nothing to support either and they both failed
However:
- More AA appointed to government
- The civil service tripled the number of black americans in its employment between 1932 and 1941
38
Describe how the New Deal failed Native Americans
Native Americans remained some of the poorest people in the US and they were unable to fully take advantage of the New Deal
39
Describe 'End Poverty in California'
- The novelist Upton Sinclair came up with a scheme in which the unemployed would be put to work in state-run co-operatives
- Paid in currency which they could spend in other co-operatives
- Sinclairs ideas gained credibility and proved useful recruits for more serious alternative movements as discussed below
40
Describe 'Share our Wealth'
- In February 1934 senator Huey Long from Louissiana moved onto the national scene with his ‘share our wealth’ programme
- He advocated that all private fortunes over $3 million should be confiscated and every family should be given enough money to buy a house, a car and a radio
- There should also be old-age pensions, minimum wages so that every family would be guaranteed $2000-3000 per year and free college education for all suitable candidates
- Long's ideas proved very popular and ‘share our wealth’ clubs grew to 27,431 in number, with 4.6 million members spread across the states.
41
Describe 'Old Age Revolving Pensions Incorporated'
- Francis Townsend was a retired doctor who advocated old-age pensions with a difference
- Over 60s not in paid employment should be given $200 per month on the understanding that every cent of it was spent and none saved
- Idea that it would boost consumption and production and pull the US out of depression
- Encouraging people to retire at 60 would provide more jobs for the young
- Soon Townsend Clubs had 500,000 members and Congress was being lobbied to put the plan into operation
Impractical:
Payments to recipients would have amounted to 50% of national income and an army of bureaucrats would be necessary to ensure poisoners were spending all their money
42
Who was Father Charles Coughlin?
- A priest who hosted the influential 1930’s radio show ‘The Golden Hour of the Little Flower’
- Had an audience of 30-40 million
- Listeners contributed more than $5 million a year to his parish in Detroit
- In 1934, Coughlin founded the **National Union for Social Justice** with the aim of monetary reform and redistribution of wealth
- Roosevelt was afraid of Coughlin’s influence, particularly when he began to ally with Huey Long
- However, Long was assassinated and Coughlin became increasingly anti-semetic which lost him much support
43
Describe how the right-wing opposed the New Deal
- The rich began to turn against Roosevelt once the economic situation stabilised
- They believed taxes were too high and that there was too much government intervention
44
Describe the Liberty League
- Founded April 1934 by various Republicans and Democrats
- Designed to promote private property and private enterprise unregulated by law
- Liberty Leaguers attacked Roosevelt throughout the years and formed the basis of the right-wing opposition to him
- By July 1936, it had 125,000 members
45
Describe the Supreme Court opposition to the New Deal
- In 140 years to 1935, the SC had only found 60 federal laws to be unconstitutional
- In 18 months in 1936 and 1937, it found 11 laws to be unconstitutional
46
Describe 'Black Monday'
- 27th May 1935
- The SC attacked the New Deal
- It found the **Farm Mortgage Act** unconstitutional
- It argued that the removal of a trade commissioner, which Roosevelt sort, was not the job of the President but of Congress
- It also found the **NRA** to be unconstitutional through the ‘sick chicken’ case
47
Describe the 'sick chicken' case, 1935
- The Schechter Brothers, an NY butchers, were selling chicken unfit for human consumption
- They were prosecuted by the NRA for breaking codes of practice but appealed to the supreme court
- The SC decided the matter should be for the NY Courts, not the Federal Government, and the poultry code was declared illegal
- It followed that all other NRA codes were therefore unconstitutional
- More significantly, the ruling seemed to imply that the government had no powers to oversee nationwide economic affairs except when it affected interstate commerce
48
Describe the Judiciary Reform Bill
- 1936
- Proposed that the president could appoint a new justice whenever an existing judge reached 70 and failed to retire within 6 months
- He also wanted to appoint up to 6 new justices, increasing the total to 15
- Many congressmen feared he may next want them to retire at 70
- Roosevelt also underestimated the popular support and respect for the SC and was viewed as dictatorial
- In July the Senate rejected the bill by 70 votes to 20
49
Describe the effect of the New Deals on unemployment
* 1933 = 18 million unemployed, 1939 = 9 million unemployed
* Roosevelt Recession of 1937 saw a return to higher unemployment (19% workforce unemployed in 1938)
* Main reason for falling unemployment was the amendment of the 1935 Neutrality Act in November 1939 so belligerents could now buy from the US
50
Describe the economic effects of the New Deal
* Economic recovery was limited particularly due to the ideas of balanced budget spending
* National total personal income was $86 billion in 1929, $73 billion in 1939 (despite population increase if 9 million)
* Average wage per week was $25.03 in 1929, $23.86 in 1939
51
Describe the political effects of the New Deal
- Economic reforms aimed to re-stabilise capitalism
- Labour unions and the federal government took their place in labour relations
- Expansion of state and federal government in terms of welfare provision
52
Describe the social effects of the New Deal
- Changing role of the federal government supporting those in need
- Legislation was often inadequate but set important precedents
- Greater role of state and local government partnerships
53
Describe how Native Americans were affected by the New Deal
- New Commissioner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, John Collier, was determined to reverse government policy towards NA
- Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934
54
Describe the Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934
- Tribes were reorganised into self-governing bodies that could vote to adopt constitutions and have their own police and legal systems
- They could control land sales on reservations and manage tribal resources
- Some argued this undermined efforts to modernise and assimilate NA
- 75 out of 245 tribes vetoed these measures when asked to vote on them
55
Describe the 'Good Neighbour Policy'
- Roosevelt encouraged economic and diplomatic cooperation with Latin America
- He saw it as his duty to transform the Monroe Doctrine into arrangements for mutual hemispheric action against aggressors
56
Describe some of the actions taken under the 'Good Neighbour' policy
- US troops left Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua
- 1934, Congress signed a treaty with Cuba that nullified the Platt Amendment
- By 1938, the policy had led to 10 treaties with Latin American countries with huge trade increase
- Policies of lowered tariffs improved Latin American economies, especially in Cuba
- Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act 1934
57
Describe the Reciprocal Trade Agreement 1934
- Repealed several 1920s isolationist trade policies
- Move towards global trade and engagement
58
Describe the first Neutrality Act, 1935
- Gave the president the power to prohibit US ships from carrying US-made munitions to countries at war
- Could prevent US citizens from travelling on ships of countries at war except at their own risk
59
Describe the second Neutrality Act, 1936
- Banned loans or credits to countries at war
- Set no limits on trade in materials useful for war such as oil and steel
60
Describe the third Neutrality Act, 1937
- Forbade the export of munitions for use by warring nations
- Did allow warring nations to buy other goods from the US, providing they paid cash and used their own ships - ‘cash and carry’
61
Describe the fourth Neutrality Act, 1937
- Authorised president to determine what could and could not be bought by countries at war
- Made travel on ships of warring countries unlawful
62
What was the 'Quarantine Speech'?
- October 1937, in Chicago
- Warned of the situation of Europe and the Far East
- Described both the horrors of war and the problems of neutrality
- Roosevelt suggested the international quarantine of aggressors
63
How did the American people feel about neutrality?
- Supported by most of Congress
- A 1937 Gallup Poll indicated 70% of Americans believed US involvement in WW1 was a mistake and 95% were opposed to involvement in any future war
64
Describe how the US moved away from neutrality in the years 1939 to 1941
* After Hitler announced further rearmament, increased the defence budget by $300 million
* From 1939, the French purchase US aircraft, bypassing neutrality laws
* March 1939, censured Germany and recalled its ambassador for breaking the Munich Agreement and seizing parts of Czechoslovakia
* Called on Italy and Germany to promise they would not attack any European country in the next 10 years
65
Describe how the US assisted the allies at the start of WW2
* Nov 1939, Congress agreed to sell arms on a cash-and-carry basis
* 1940, 'traded' Britain 50 destroyers for six Caribbean bases and the lease of bases on Bermuda and Newfoundland
66
Describe the 1940 presidential election
* Republican candidate = Wendell Willkie
* September in Boston, Roosevelt assures 'boys were not going to be sent into any foreign wars'
* Roosevelt won 27 million votes to 22 million
* December 'fireside chat', described the US as 'the arsenal of democracy'
67
Describe the Lend-Lease Bill
* May 1941
* Britain would be loaned weapons to keep fighting
* In Nov, it was extended to include the USSR
68
Describe the Atlantic Charter
* August 1941, Roosevelt met with Churchill on the Prince of Wales battleship, anchored off the coast of Canada
* They then issued the Atlantic Charter
* Outlined the world after 'the final destruction of Nazi tyranny', with international peace and national self-determination
69
Describe relations with Japan following the invasion of China (1937 to 1940)
* Japan started invading China in 1937
* Japan declared the Open Door policy obsolete
* The US lent funds to China and asked US manufacturers not to sell to Japan
70
Describe escalation of tensions with Japan in the early 1940s
* In 1940, Congress limited supplies oil and scrap iron to Japan
* After the signing of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis, Roosevelt banned the sale of machine tools to Japan
* 1941, Secretary of State demanded Japan withdraw from China and promise not to attack dutch and french colonies in South-east Asia - Japan refused
71
Describe the Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
* When France was defeated by Germany, the Japanese invaded the French colonies in Indochina
* July 1941, US froze Japanese assets in the US and placed an oil embargo on Japan
* Japan promised to pull-out of Indochina if the US and Britain cut off aid to China and lifted the economic blockade on Japan
72
Describe the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour
* 7th December 1941, Japan attack the US base on Oahu, Hawaii
* Aim to destroy the Pacific Fleet so the US could not stop Japanese expansion into East Asia
* Destroyed 180 aircraft
* Sank 7 battleships and 10 other vessels
* 2,400 US troops were killed
* However, US aircraft carriers were out at sea and the Japanese also missed the US fuel stores
73
Describe the response to Pearl Harbour
* 8th December, US declare war on Japan
* 11th December, Germany and Italy declare war on the US
74
Give two federal acts introduced in WW2
* 1940 Smith Act made it illegal to overthrow the government
* 1940 Selective Service Act introduced conscription
75
Describe some of the gov organisations set up during WW2
* Office of War Mobilisation created to control supply of goods and prices
* National War Labor Board to set wages
* War Management Commission to employ workers where they were most needed
* Office of Scientific Research and Development to use scientists for the war effort
* Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply
76
Describe the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply
* Set up August 1941
* To control inflation
* April 1942, issued a General Maximum Price regulation to freeze prices
* Eventually 90% of food items were subject to price controls
77
Describe employment during WW2
* **1940 to 1944, unemployment fell from 14.6% to 1.2%**
* 1944, 6.5 million women entered the labour force
* **By the end of the war, 60% of women were employed**
* **1939 to 1944, the number of AA working for federal government rose from 50,000 to 200,000**
* 1 million AA found jobs in defence plants
78
Describe production during WW2
* 1941 to 1945, the US produced 86,000 tanks, 296,000 aircraft and 15 million rifles
79
Describe prosperity and equality during WW2
* Prices rose by 28% but wages rose by an average of 40%
* **Farm income grew by 250%**
* 1939 to 1945, GNP rose from $91.3 billion to $166.6 billion
* **The highest earners payed 94% tax**
80
Describe federal spending during WW2
* 1941 to 1945, the national debt rose from $41 billion to $260 billion
* The federal gov spent twice as much 1941 to 1945 as it had in the previous 150 years
81
Describe the poor treatment of Japanese-Americans
* Chief of the Army West Coast Command, Dewitt, set up 10 'relocation centres'
* 100,000 were forcibly sent there
* The community lost $400 million due to looting in their absence
* Rioting in the camp at Manzanar left 2 inmates dead
82
Describe the end of internment of Japanese-Americans
* Were allowed to return home in 1944
* Dec 1944, Supreme Court forbade the internment of loyal Japanese Americans
83
Describe female employment during WW2
* Female employment peaked at 19 million
* Eleanor Roosevelt spoke strongly in favour of female war workers
* 1 in 3 aircraft workers and 50% electronics and munitions workers were women
* 1942 poll showed 60% of Americans in favour of women helping in war industries
* Some states made equal pay compulsory and others tried to reduce workplace discrimination
84
Describe employment discrimination against african american women
* Usually the last to be hired
* 'Hate strikes', like those in Packard car factory in Detroit, to protest their employment
85
Describe female employment at the end of WW2
* Returned to traditional roles
* Excluded from top, well-paid jobs
* On average, earned 50-60% of what men earned for the same job
* A woman could be dismissed from her job when she married
86
Describe African American employment in 1940
* Only 5 million of 13 million AA were employed
* Black men and women earned less than half their white counterparts
* A survey by the US employment office indicated more than half of the defence industries would not employ AA
87
Describe the Double V campaign
* Created by the Pittsburgh Courier
* Victory at home and abroad
88
Describe the AA March on Washington Movement
* Led by A. Philip Randolph
* Planned march of 100,000 protesters
* Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 to set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission
* in return, Randolph called off the march
89
Describe the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)
* June 1941
* To investigate complaints and take action against employment discrimination
* 1943, Roosevelt issues Executive Order 9346, which gave the commission greater powers and increases its budget to nearly 1/2 million
* Investigated 8,000 instances of discrimination with a case success rate of 55 to 66%
90
Describe discrimination in the army
* 'Jim Crow army'
* Inferior training, resources and treatment
* Menial jobs
* By spring 1943, only 79,000 of 504,000 black soldiers were overseas
91
Describe AA in the air force
* Initially not allowed to enlist
* 1940, Roosevelt ordered the air force to recruit an all AA flying unit - the Tuskegee Airmen
* By 1946, 600 AA pilots had been trained
* Not allowed to fly with white men
92
Describe the Port Chicago Mutiny
* July 1944 at Port Chicago, California
* Ammunition being loaded on to two vessels detonated
* Killed 323, mostly AA
* Hundreds of AA soldiers went on strike over dangerous conditions
* 50 were arrested and imprisoned
* Navy was desegregated 1946
