Conflict at home and abroad (1960 - 1975) Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961
A
- June 1961, Krushchev met Kennedy in Vienna and gave the ultimatum that something had to done about Berlin by December 1961 or he would close the access routes
- August 1961, Krushchev ordered the building of the Berlin Wall
- From 5pm 27th October to 11am 28th October, fully armed US and Soviet tanks faced off at the border between east and west Berlin
- After 18 hours, the US tanks pulled back
2
Q
Why was the Berlin Wall Crisis important?
A
- Could be said to bring stability to Germany as it finally sealed off the two sectors
- Both US and USSR resumed nuclear testing
- Soviet propaganda claimed that the wall was a success as the US was unable to prevent its construction
- Western propaganda claimed it showed that the USSR had to wall its people in
- Some believe that Krushchev saw it as such a success that it encouraged him to place missiles in Cuba
3
Q
Why was detente possible?
A
- Both US and USSR wanted to limit arms in order to reduce their defence spending
- Nixon hoped improving relations with the USSR might mean the Soviets encourage the North Vietnamese to end the war in Vietnam
- The USSR did not want the US to have better relations with the Chinese than with them
4
Q
Describe the Bay of Pigs
A
- In April 1961, Kennedy sanctioned the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba
- Cuban exiles were to return and create a national uprising
- It failed terribly due to poor planning and lack of support from the cuban people
- It was a humiliation to the US and brought Cuba closer to the USSR
- At the end of 1961, Castro announced his conversion to communism
5
Q
Describe the Cuban Missile Crisis
A
- 1962
- The Soviets were concerned by the presence of US missile bases in Italy and Turkey
- Soviets plan to place nuclear missiles on Cuba
- Kennedy placed a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent missiles reaching the island
- Kennedy and Khrushchev negotiated via letters
- The US agreed to withdraw missiles from Turkey (but secretly) as long as USSR did not place missiles in Cuba
5
Q
What was ‘Ping-pong’ diplomacy?
A
- World Table Tennis Championship held in Japan on April 6th 1971
- An american player missed his teams bus after practice and was then offered a lift by the chinese team
- Cowan and Zedong’s unlikely friendship was widely publicised
- The American team was then formally invited on an all-expenses paid trip to China
6
Q
Describe the effects of the Cuban Missile Crisis,1962
A
- It was perceived that Kennedy had won and Khrushchev had backed down (Particularly as the deal over Turkey was not revealed for some time)
- It has been said that the pride of this success led the US to act over confidently in Vietnam
- The Soviets retaliated by working hard to achieve nuclear parity by the end of the decade
- International relief following the deescalation of crisis
- A hotline link was established between the Whitehouse and the Kremlin
- The Partial Test Ban Treaty, 1963
7
Q
Describe the Partial Test Ban Treaty
A
- 1963
- US and the USSR agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere
8
Q
Why did Chinese-US relations improve during this period?
A
- April 1971, US lifted its 21 year trade embargo with China
- China-USSR relations had deteriorated over the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1948
- Nixon hoped relations with China might help end the war in Vietnam as the Chinese were close allies of the North Vietnamese
- Moa wanted to stimulate Chinese trade and industry
10
Q
Define detente
A
‘A reduction in tension’
The improvement of US-Soviet relations in the years after the Cuban Missile Crisis
11
Q
What was SALT 1?
A
- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1972
- Imposed limits on nuclear capabilities on US and USSR
- The first treaty of its kind
12
Q
Describe the Helsinki Agreements
A
- 1975
- The US, USSR and 33 other countries made declarations on 3 main issues
- The West recognised borders in Eastern Europe and the Soviets accepted the existence of West Germany
- Agreed to respect basic human rights and freedoms
- Closer economic, scientific and cultural links
13
Q
When did Nixon visit China?
A
1972
14
Q
Describe how ‘containment’ led to US involvement in the Vietnam war
A
- The US want to stop the spread of communism
- The domino theory - US convinced that if Vietnam fell to communism it would be followed by its neighbouring states, especially Laos and Cambodia
15
Q
Describe US involvement in Vietnam before the Vietnam War
A
- US determined to prop up South Vietnam - prevent any further elections as they knew that the communists would win
- The US prevented fair elections realising Communism would win.
- 1965, Ho Chi Minh ordered Vietcong to begin invasion of the south
16
Q
Describe how weakness in the South Vietnamese government led to US involvement in the Vietnam war
A
- Diem was corrupt
- November 1963 Diem was overthrown and replaced by a series of weak and short-lived governments
- Vietcong became popular in south
- Under Kennedy the US tried to reduce Communist influence through the Strategic Hamlet policy
17
Q
What was the Strategic Hamlet Policy?
A
- Moving Vietnamese peasants into fortified villages, guarded by troops to control the spread of communism
- Unsuccessful and very unpopular
18
Q
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin incident
A
- 2nd August, 1964 US destroyer Maddox was fired at by North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin
- Two days later there was an alleged second attack but later evidence showed this never happened
- Johnson used this to persuade congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
- It was suggested Johnson may have engineered the Gulf of Tonkin incident for greater military support
19
Q
What was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?
A
- Gave Johnson the power to use any military measure he thought necessary to defend South Vietnam
At the time it was supported by:
- 85% of public
- All of House of Representatives
- All of the Senate minus 2
20
Q
Describe how the strengths of the Communists helped defeat the US in Vietnam
A
- North Vietnamese and Vietcong troops were highly motivated for the reunification of Vietnam
- Vietcong battle tactics and tunnels
- The North Vietnamese and Vietcong were supported by the population in the South and by the Soviet Union and China
21
Q
Describe the Vietcong battle tactics
A
- The Vietcong fought a low-tech war using Guerilla tactics
- They avoided head on battles which reduced the effectiveness of the US superior weaponry
- There tactics were much better suited to the jungle terrain of South Vietnam
22
Q
Describe the Vietcong tunnels
A
- These tunnels were deep and extensive, used for getting around and sheltering from bombing raids
- They were heavily booby-trapped making them a death trap for US forces and the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam
- The tunnels around Saigon ran for 320km
23
Q
Describe support for North Vietnam and the Vietcong
A
- The Southern people hid the Northern fighters and aided their guerilla tactics
- The USSR and China supplied the North with rockets, tanks and fighters planes
24
Q
Describe how the weakness of the US forces led to their defeat in Vietnam
A
- US troops were inexperienced and unmotivated
- Lack of support at home
- US tactics such as Search and Destroy and chemical warfare further encouraged the Southern Vietnamese to turn on them
- The Tet Offensive, 31st January 1968
25
Describe the My Lai massacre
- 16th March 1968
- A US patrol killed 347 Vietnamese civilians, wiping out the whole village of My Lai
- US military attempted to cover it up but this was unsuccessful
- Lieutenant Calley was found guilty of the murder of 109 people and was sentenced to 20 years hard labour in 1971 (he was released 1973)
- Shocked the US public
26
Describe the Tet Offensive
- 1968
- The Vietcong and North Vietnamese launched an attack on over 100 towns and cities in South Vietnam during the New Year
- They even captured the US embassy in Saigon
- This brought further loss to US military morale and further criticism at home
27
Describe Operation Rolling Thunder
- The US bombing campaign of North Vietnam, lasting 3.5 years from 1965 to 1968
- Aimed to destroy Vietcong supply routes to the South
28
Describe US chemical warfare techniques in Vietnam
- The use of napalm and chemical defoliants
- ‘Agent Orange’ was a highly toxic weed killer used to destroy the jungle
29
Describe the US 'Search and Destroy' campaign in Vietnam
- Introduced by Commander Westmoreland
- Entailed using helicopters to descend on villages suspected of assisting Vietcong forces and destroying them
- Referred to by US troops as ‘Zippo’ raids after the the name of the lighters they used to set fire to the thatched houses
30
Describe the impact of mass media on the War in Vietnam
- During the Korean War only about 10% of US houses had TV and most footage was taken by official military cameramen
- By 1966, 93% of US homes had a TV and daily audience was 50 million
- By 1967, 90% of the evening news was devoted to the war
- News film in Vietnam was produced by the American TV works with no military censorship
31
Describe how media attitudes changed following the Tet Offensive
- Film of the Vietcong fighting in the grounds of the US embassy in Saigon seemed to confirm that the US was loosing
- Other horrors shocked the public such as the My Lai massacre and the live execution of a Vietcong suspect by the Saigon Chief of Police in 1968
32
Describe the cost of the Vietnam War
- By the time of the Tet Offensive in 1968, more than **36,000** of the US military had been killed
- Protests were being held in every major city
- In 1964, the Vietnam war cost the US government less than half a billion dollars but by 1968 the cost was at **$26.5 billion**
33
Describe Nixon's role in US withdrawal from Vietnam
- In 1968, Nixon was elected on the promise to withdraw from Vietnam
- Nixon’s initial plan was unveiled in May 1969, with the aim of training up Southern Vietnamese soldiers to replace american forces
- This failed as the South Vietnam forces were much weaker than the North
- Peace talks began in 1968 but made no real progress until Nixon’s visit to China in 1972, after which the Chinese government encouraged more cooperation from the North Vietnam government
34
Describe the end of the war in Vietnam
- On 23rd January 1973, a ceasefire was signed with the US in Paris, followed four days later by a formal peace treaty
- The US promised to withdraw all of its troops and allow Vietcong to keep all captured areas of South Vietnam
- Within 2 years, the Communists had defeated the South Vietnamese and reunited Vietnam
35
Describe the effects of the Vietnam War
- Cost the US **$30 billion each year** of war
- Made Johnson very unpopular
- Encouraged improved relations with China and the Soviet Union
- Nixon Doctrine
- **60,000** US troops killed and **150,000** wounded
36
Describe the Nixon Doctrine
Stated that the US expected its allies to take care of their own military defence
37
Describe the 1960 election
* Kennedy vs Nixon
* The election was the closest since 1888
* JFK won by only 118,574 votes
38
Why did Kennedy win in 1960?
* Kennedy was Catholic, winning him Catholic votes
* He was the son of one of the richest men in America, Joseph Kennedy
* He was only 43
* Promised a 'New Frontier'
* Promised to take a tough stance on communism
* Supported Martin Luther King
* 70 million viewers watched 4 TV debates between Kennedy and Nixon and many sided with JFK. Nixon took the lead on radio
39
Describe how Kennedy supported Martin Luther King
* In October 1960, King was arrested for trying to desegregate a restaurant in Atlanta
* JFK phoned his wife, stating his support
* His brother, Robert Kennedy, used his influence to obtain Kings’ release
40
Describe Kennedy's New Frontier
* A campaign for social reform, including civil rights
Major changes to government included the Brains Trust:
* Brightest young experts who had never worked for the government before
* Kennedy hoped they would come up with new ideas for tackling America’s problems
41
Describe Kennedy's stance on Civil Rights
* Hesitant to alienate the conservative South
* Appointed **5 federal judges**, including Thurgood Marshall, a leading Civil Rights activist
* Threatened legal action against the state of **Louisiana** for refusing to fund mixed race schools
* October 1962, sent 23,000 government troops to ensure one black student, **James Meredith**, could study at the University of Mississippi
* Introduced **Civil Rights Bill in Feb 1963** which aimed to provide equality in housing and education but was defeated in congress
42
Describe the positive of Kennedy's economy
* Introduced a **general tax cut** in the hope it would stimulate spending and goods sales
* Spent $900,000? on public works
* Federal government began projects to build new roads and public buildings
* Grants were given to high-tech companies to invest in high-tech equipment to train workers
* Increased spending on defence and space technology and **promised to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade**
* **Limited prices and wages** to keep control of inflation
43
Describe the negatives of Kennedy's economy
* Still unemployment in older industries such as coal, iron and steel
* Unemployment was twice as high among African Americans
* The boom was heavily dependent on government spending
44
Describe the postives of Kennedy's social change
* Increased the minimum wage from **$1.00 to $1.25 per hour**
* **Manpower and Training Act 1962** provided retraining for the long-term unemployed
* **Area Redevelopment Act 1961** allowed Federal government to give loans and grants to states with long-term unemployment
* **Housing Act 1961** provided cheap loans for the redevelopment of inner cities
* **Social Security Act 1961** gave greater financial help to the elderly and unemployed
* Social security benefits were extended to each child whose father was unemployed
45
Describe the negative of Kennedy's social change
* Medicate, a cheap system of state health insurance, was thrown out by Congress
* Slum clearance created housing shortages in inner city areas
* Minimum wage only helped those who already had a job
* Many of the poorest people could not afford to pay back housing loans
46
Describe opposition to Kennedy's New Frontier
* The greatest opposition came from Southern Congressmen, including democrats, who disliked his commitment to Civil Rights
* They felt equal rights for AA would cost them Southern votes
* Some opposed the further expansion of the powers and spending of Federal government
* Many still believed in ‘rugged individualism’
47
Describe Johnson's stance on Civil Rights
* Civil Rights Act 1964
* Voting Rights Act 1965
* In 1967, the Supreme Court declared all laws banning mixed race marriages to be removed
48
Describe the Civil Rights Act 1964
Banned discrimination in public places, in federally assisted programmes and in employment
49
Describe the Voting Rights Act
* 1965
* Appointed agents to ensure that voting procedures were carried out properly
50
Describe economic reform under Johnson
* Appalachian Recovery Programme 1965
* Office for Economic Opportunity 1964
* Spent $1.5 billion on the Head Start Programme 1965, so that teachers could provide additional education for very young, poor children
* Manufacturers and shops had to label goods fairly and clearly
* Consumers had the right to return faulty goods and exchange them
* Cut taxes to give consumers more money to spend and stimulate the economy
51
Describe the Appalachian Recovery Programme
- 1965
- Provided federal funds for the development of a mountainous region in Eastern states
52
Describe the Office for Economic Opportunity
* Set up schemes to help poor people in the inner city
* Education and community projects
* Provided loans to other schemes
53
Describe social reform under Johnson
* Medical Care Act 1965
* Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965
* Model Cities Act 1966
* Minimum wage increased from $1.25 to $1.40 an hour
54
Describe the Medical Care Act
- 1965
- Provided Medicare (for the old) and Medicaid (for the poor) in an attempt to provide access to healthcare
55
Describe the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
* Provided the first major federal support for state education
* Money to ensure standards of education were equal across all states
56
Describe the Model Cities Act
Provided federal funds for slum clearance and provision of better services
57
Describe opposition to the Great Society
* Republicans accused him of wasting money and undermining rugged individualism, particularly with regards to the increase in healthcare expenditure
* Johnson was strongly criticised over Vietnam
* Outbreak of violence in cities in the late 60’s was used as evidence of failure
* Johnson chose not to stand for re-election in 1968
58
Describe the crisis of the democratic party before the 1968 election
* Johnson will not run again
* In April, Martin Luther King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee
* In June, Robert Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles on the night of his victory in the California primary
* In August, the Democratic national convention opened in Chicago and was dominated by protests and police brutality
59
Describe the 'Southern Strategy'
Nixon aimed to win the support of white Southerners, discontent with Democrat support of Civil Rights
60
Describe the results of the 1968 election
* Nixon won
* Humphrey won 31 million votes, only 1% point behind Nixon
Partly due to the Independent candidate, George Wallace:
* Wallace received 10 million votes and won 5 states in the deep south; Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia
* Unclear whether these votes would have gone to Nixon or Humphrey
61
Describe Nixon's social reform
* Reforms of the tax system
* Tried to establish a national healthcare insurance system but this was defeated in Congress
* Set up Family Assistance scheme to provide federal funding for state welfare payments to poor families
* Set up Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 to advise the government on environmental issues
62
Describe Nixon's race relations
* Conservative policies
* Encouraged his vice-president, Spiro Agnew, to attack liberals and to appeal to white southerners
* Slowed down the desegregation of schools in Mississippi
* Blocked moves to extend the 1965 Voting Rights Act
* Appointed a new conservative judge, Warren Burger, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
63
Describe Nixon's law and order
* Used the Justice Department to crack down on activists
* Wanted to implement the Huston Plan, empowering the FBI and the CIA to carry out wire-tapping and covert surveillance but was vetoed by Hoover
* Nixon set up a secret White House intelligence unit known as the ‘plumbers’ to stop government leaks
* Their first operation was to target Daniel Ellsberg, the man who leaked the Pentagon Papers
64
Describe the causes of the 1970's 'New Great Depression'
* Partly due to the natural economic cycle
* Military spending required by the Vietnam War and the Cold War
* Previous prosperity led to rising imports, particularly oil, at a rate exports could not match
65
Describe Nixon's reponse to the 'New Great Depression'
* August 1971, Nixon called his economic advisors to Camp David
* Expanded federal intervention in the economy
* Imposed a freeze on wages and prices
* Raised tariffs on all imports
* Took the United States off the gold standard
* Devalued the dollar by allowing floating exchange rates
66
Describe the effect of Nixon's action on the 'New Great Depression'
* This undermined the position of the dollar as the world’s reserve currency, established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944
* Devaluation of the dollar led to high inflation in all western economies
* Provoked OPEC to raise the price of oil in 1973
* By 1974, **inflation** in the US was at **12%**
* Production decreased by 15%
* **Unemployment rose to 9%**
67
Describe the break-in that was the start of the Watergate Scandal
* 17th June 1972, 5 members of CREEP were arrested for breaking into the Watergate Offices of the Democrat Party
* Nixon denied any involvement by him or his advisors
* Jan 1973, the burglars went on trial and were all convicted
68
Describe the investigation of the Watergate break in
* March 1973, McCord (one of the burglars) claimed in court there had been a whitehouse cover up
* Nixon denied personal involvement but admitted his top advisors, Haldeman and Ehrlich, had been involved and they resigned
* A Senate Committee was set up to investigate and this was televised between May and November 1973
69
Describe the tapes that revealed the Watergate scandal
* A White House aide told the committee that Nixon had recorded all White House conversations since 1971
* Nixon tried to avoid giving up the tapes but was eventually forced to
* The tapes revealed Nixon's involvement and repeated lies
70
Describe the immediate effects of the Watergate Scandal
* July 1974, Congress decided to impeach Nixon
* 8th August 1974, Nixon resigned to avoid impeachment
* 31 of Nixon's advisors served prison time for Watergate-related offences
71
Describe the reduction to executive power that followed the Watergate scandal
* War Powers Act 1973
* Election Campaign Act 1974
* Privacy Act 1974
* Congressional Budget Act 1974
72
Describe the Election Campaign Act 1974
Set limits on election contributions to prevent corruption
73
Describe the War Powers Act 1973
Required the president to consult Congress before sending US troops into combat
74
Describe the Privacy Act
- 1974
- Allowed citizens to have access to any files the government might have on them
75
Describe the Congressional Budget Act 1974
The president could not use government money for their own purposes
76
Describe the Greensboro sit-ins
* 1960, Greensboro, North Carolina
* Students organise a sit-in at an all white cafe
* By August 1961, the sit-ins had 70,000 participants and over 3,000 arrests
77
Describe the 'freedom rides'
* December 1960, the SC ruled interstate travel should be desegregated
* CORE sent integrated bus rides into the still segregated south
* The rides continued May 1961 to summer 1961
* Over 300 riders were arrested
* 22 Sept 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued a regulation that ended segregation in bus terminals
78
Describe the Birmingham march
* May 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama
* King led a march against the racist police chief, Bull O'Connor
* The police used dogs and the fire department used high pressure water hoses
* 2,000 adults and 1,300 children were arrested
* Kennedy became involved and it was agreed desegregation would take place within 90 days
79
Describe the March on Washington
* 28th August 1963
* 250,000 take part
* 'I have a dream' speech
80
Describe 'Bloody Sunday'
* 1965
* March from Selma to Birmingham (both in Alabama)
* To present a petition demanding voting rights
* Violence from police and state troopers
* This encouraged President Johnson to introduce the Voting Rights Act of 1965
81
Describe the assassination of Martin Luther King
* 4th April 1968
* Memphis
* Was assassinated by a white racist James Earl Ray
82
Describe the limitations of King
The roles of organisations like the SNCC, CORE and the NAACP and other significant individuals should not be overshadowed
83
Describe Nation of Islam
* In the 60s, led by Elijah Muhammad
* He claimed Allah originally created people black and other races were created by an evil scientist, Yakob
* One day Allah would return and end white supremacy
* This was particularly attractive to black americans who felt Christianity was the religion of slave owners
84
Describe Malcolm X in the Nation of Islam
* Superb organiser and speaker
* Set up educational and social programmes aimed at black youth
* Increased membership to 100,000 by 1964
* 1960, 75% of members of Nation of Islam were aged 17 to 35
85
Describe Malcolm X in opposition to King
* Malcolm felt violence was necessary and wanted to secure a separate black nation
* Criticised the 1963 March on Washington as 'the farce on Washington' organised by white people
86
Describe Malcolm X after Nation of Islam
* March 1964, Malcolm left Nation of Islam after falling out with Elijah Muhammad
* Malcolm visited Mecca and saw muslims of different races praying together and moved away from separatism
* He became increasingly critical of Nation of Islam
* He was assassinated in 1965, probably by Nation of Islam
87
Describe black riots
* **1964 to 1966**, there were **300 riots**
* 11th August 1965, 30,000 people rioted in LA, killing 34 and causing $40 million in property damage
* Peaked summer 1967 with riots in 125 cities
* 1965-67, **21,000 federal troops and 34,000 National Guardsman** were involved in ending riots that caused **$145 million** in damage
88
Describe the Black Power movement
* Taken up by Stokely Carmichael and the SNCC in 1966
* 'Black is beautiful'
* Encourage black pride and culture
* Gained particular publicity at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics when black podium athletes Smith and Carlos both raised their hands in the Black Power salute
89
Describe the rise of the Black Panthers
* Founded 1966 in Oakland, California
* Believed in using revolutionary and potentially violent means to achieve equality
* Set up practical community action programmes including serving breakfast to poor black kids and establishing healthcare clinics
* Encouraged more awareness of black culture and history
* 'Power to the people'
* 1968, had 5,000 members
90
Describe the fall of the Black Panthers
* Internal divisions
* In 1969, 27 Panthers were killed and 700 injured in confrontations with the police
* Constantly targeted by the FBI
* Support diminishing
* By 1982, the party was disbanded
91
Describe the reasons for the student protest movement
* Wanted a greater say in their own education
* Were inspired by King and the civil rights movement
* Student protests were occurring worldwide
* The Vietnam war and the draft were opposed
* An explosion of pop music encourage youth culture
92
Describe how the student protestors were involved in civil rights
* Involved in the SNCC and CORE
* 1964, student societies organised marches for civil rights
* Wanted to expose racism in their colleges
93
Describe the founding of the SDS
* Students for a Democratic Society
* 1959, Tom Hayden set up to give students a greater say in how unis were run
* Denounced cold war and campaigned for disarmament
* Wanted to help the poor and disadvantaged
94
Describe SDS membership
By the end of the 1960's:
* 150 unis and colleges
* 100,000 members
95
Describe SDS sit-ins
* 1964, organised a sit-in against a ban on political activities at Uni of California at Berkeley
* Spread across the country
96
Describe SDS resistance to the Vietnam draft
* 1966, President Johnson abolished student draft deferments
* SDS set up 300 new branches
* Draft card burnings, harassing campus recruiters for the CIA, occupying university buildings and destroying draft cards records
97
Describe the Chicago Seven
* 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago
* SDS protestors organised a riot to destroy the election chances of pro-war candidate, Hubert Humphrey
* 7 were arrested and convicted of crossing state lines to incite a riot
98
Describe the radicalisation of the student movement
* Late 1960's, became more violent
* Began calling themselves 'Weathermen' after a Bob Dylan song
* Bombed army recruitment centers and government buildings
* Slowed down when three Weathermen accidently blew themselves up
99
Describe the anti-Vietnam war protests
* Peaked 1968-70
* In the first half of 1968, there were over 100 demonstrations involving 400,000 students
* 1969, 700,000 marched on Washington DC
* Burning of draft cards and the US flag
* Violent clashes with police
100
Describe the worst incident at an anti-Vietnam war protest (Kentucky University)
* Kentucky University
* 1970
* Peaceful protest against Nixon's decision to bomb Cambodia
* National Guard used teargas and then open fired
* 4 killed and 11 injured
* 400 colleges closed as 2 million students went on strike in protest over this action
101
Describe the hippie movement
* 'Make love, not war'
* San Francisco was the hippie capital of America
* Nicknamed 'flower children'
* Clashes with 'pigs'
* 1969 Woodstock Festival was attended by 400,000
102
Describe Eleanor Roosevelt
* 1960, set up Commission to investigate the status of women at work and was appointed chair
* Died just before committee released its final report in 1963
103
Describe the findings of the report by Eleanor Roosevelt's commission
* 1963
* 95% of company managers were men
* 85% of technical workers were men
* Only 7% of doctors and 4% of lawyers were women
* Women only earned 50-60% of the wages of men who did the same job
104
Describe Betty Friedan
* 1963, 'The Feminine Mystique'
* Declared there was more to female life that housework and motherhood
* Wanted progress in female employment
* 1966, set up National Organisation for Women (NOW)
105
Describe the National Organisation for Women
* Set up 1966 by Betty Friedan
* By early 70's it had 40,000 members
* Challenged discrimination in the courts
* 1966 to 1971, secured $30 million in back pay owed to women not paid wages equal to men
106
Describe the Women's Liberation Movement
* More radical than NOW
* Called themselves feminists
* Burned their bras
* 1968, picketed Miss America in Atlantic City and crowned a sheep
* Some argued they brought ridicule to the movement and distracted from equal pay and better job opportunities
107
Describe the achievements of the women's movement
* 1963 Equal Pay Act
* 1972 Educational Amendment Act
* 1972, the Supreme Court ruled that men and women had equal rights under the US constitution
* Increasing number of women entered previously male dominated careers
108
Describe the limitations of the women's movement
* The 1963 Equal Pay Act did nothing to combat hiring discrimination
* The Equal Rights Amendment was passed by Congress but not ratified by the states
* Few working-class women were involved
* The movement was divided between moderate and more extreme feminists
109
What was the Equal Pay Act?
- 1963
- Required employers to pay women the same as men for the same job
110
What was the Educational Amendment Act?
- 1972
- Outlawed sex discrimination in education and ruled that girls must follow the same curriculum as boys
