Neuroscience + Clinical Flashcards
Nucleus contains
DNA
RER
Synthesis proteins
SER
Synthesis Fats
Golgi Complex
Packages products for transport around the cell
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cewll
Lysosomes
Waste Disposal System
Cytoskeleton
maintains shape and provides rails for transport
More than 1 dendrite neuron is called?
Multipolar Neuron - dendrites emanate from apex and base of cell body
Bipolar Neuron
only has 1 dendrite
Golgi type 1 length of axon
Long axon and large
Golgi type 2 length of axon
Short axon
Three shapes of cell bodies of neurons
Ovoid
Fusiform
Triangular
Where are pyramidal cells found
Mainly in cerebral cortex
Features of Pyramidal cells
triangular cell body
multipolar
spiny dendrites
axon extends from base
golgi type 1 (projection neuron)
Where are spiny stellate cells found?
Cerebral cortex
Features of spiny stellate cells
Ovoid cell body
multipolar
radial/horizontal
spiny dendrites
golgi type 2 (interneurons)
Features of Dopaminergic Neurons
Fusiform cell body
multipolar ]axon emerges from dendrites or cell body
golgi type 1 (projection neurons)
Neurons involved in Parkinson’s Disease
Dopaminergic neurons - degeneration
Where are Purkinje cells
Cortex of cerebullum
Features of Purkinje cells
Ovoid cell body
bipolar
highly branched dendritic tree
spiny dendrites
golgi type 1 (projection neuron)
Degeneration of purkinje cell
Tremor
problems with walking, fine hand movements
problems with speech
motor issues
4/5ths of all neurons in the brain are found in one structure
Cerebellum
3 types of glia cells in CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Astrocytes
Microglia
Type of Glia in PNS
Schwann Cell
What cells are schwann cells similar to
oligodendrocytes
What do oligodendrocytes do
Form Myelin
What are nodes of ranvier
Unmyelinated segments of axon
what is an internode
myelinated segments of axon
How is multiple sclerosis caused
caused by degeneration of myelin coating
features of astrocytes
star shaped
connected by gap junctions
20-50 percent of volume of most brain areas
What do astrocytes do
Fence in neurons
make cuffs around nodes of ranvier
ensheath synapses of dendrites
project processes to cell somas
cover capillaries
(more) Functions of astrocytes
Induce/maintain tight junctions in endothelial ells - forms blood brain barrier
Uptake of neurotransmitters
Neurovascular coupling
features of Microglia
small rod shaped somas
processes extend out symmetrically
What do microglia do
Representatives of immune system in brain
brain - immunologically privileged site
BBB restricts access of immune cells from blood
involved in phagocytosis
What does encephalon mean
position within the head
dorsal / ventral
back / belly
anterior / posterior
front / back
rostral / caudal
beak / tail
medial / lateral
middle / side
What are the main areas of the forebrain
telencephalon
diencephalon
What is in the telencephalon
2 cerebral hemispheres
Limbic system
basal ganglia
cerebral cortex
what connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
what is the limbic system
a collection of structures regarding emotion and memory
what structures are in the limbic system
hippocampus
amygdala
cingulate cortex
septum
mammillary bodies
what are the basal ganglia
a group of nuclei with the main function of movement
what basal ganglia are there
caudate nucleus
putamen
globus palliddus
substantia nigra (mesencephalon)
ssubthalamic nucleus (diencephalon)
where are the four lobes located
cerebral cortex
what are the four lobes
frontal
temporal (temple)
parietal (wall)
occipital (back of head)
which lobe is involved with movement
frontal
which lobe is involved with auditory stimulation
temporal
which lobe is involved with visual stimulation
occiptal
what does the parietal lobe involve
somatosensory
what does damage to V1 do
causes blindness
where is the prefrontal cortex
rostral (towards the beak) to the motor association cortex
what is the prefrontal cortex involved in
planning and emotional behaviour
(think phineas gage)
What structures are in the diencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
what do sensory relay nuclei do
transmit info from receptors to the cortex
where is the mesencephalon
midbrain
what is in the mesencephalon
tectum
tegmentum
What is in the tectum, and what do they do
consists of inferior and superior colliculi
inferior = auditory system
superior = visual system
What 3 structures are in the tegmentum
periacueductal grey
red nucleus
substantia nigra
death of neurone in which component causes parkinson’s disease
substantia nigra
what components are in the hindbrain
mesencephalon
myelencephalon
what does the nucleus ambiguus give rise to
the vagus nerve
part of ANS - controlling heart muscle, blood vessels and glands
what do the nuclei in the hindbrain control
respiration
tongue muscles
blood pressure and heart rate
what structures are in the metencephalon
pons
cerebellum
what does the pons contain
nuclei which are involved in sleep and arousal
what does the locus coeruleus control
noradrenaline
what does the cerebellum do
coordinates smooth movements
integrates sensory info to modify motor output
where is the medulla oblongata located
myelencephalon
what components make the brainstem
mid and hindbrain
what charge is a cation and anion
cation - positive loss e
anion - negative gain e
at rest, what is the charge inside a neuron
negative
why does a resting membrane potential arise
The ions are unevenly distributed across the membrane
which ion is permeable to the cell membrane, and therefore establishes a membrane potential
potassium K+
what two ions are involved in the active process
3 Na+in = 2 K+ out
what is depolarisation
when the membrane potential is made LESS negative
what is hyperpolarisation
when a membrane potential is made MORE negative
Describe briefly an action potential
cell depolarises to threshold -60mV
VG Na+ channels open, polarity goes to +30
Na+ closes, K+ opens
restores the resting membrane potential
what is propagation
when an action potential travels down the axon
why does myelin increase the speed of propagation
conduction along myelinated segments is passive, so the current jumps straight from one node of ranvier to the next
what is saltatory conduction
transmission of action potentials in myelinated axons
what is a synapse
point of specialised contact between two neurons
what is the most important feature of the presynaptic element
vesicles
what do vesicles do
they contain neurotransmitters and allow us to release thousands of molecules rapidly at the same time
what substance blocks neurotransmitter release
botox
botulinum toxin
describe the process of synaptic transmission
neurotransmitters synthesised and stored in vesicles
released by presynaptic activation
binds to receptors
inactivated
what does an excitatory neurotransmitter do
depolarisation
allows entry of positively charged
makes cells more likely to fire an action potential
example of an excitatory neurotransmitter
glutamate
what does an inhibitory neurotransmitter do
hyperpolarisation
allows entry of negatively charged ions
makes cells less likely to fire an action potential
an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA
what are the two main types of receptors and what are they
ionotropic - receptors directly associated with an in channel - usually consists of 5 subunits
metabotropic - biochemical cascade links receptor to an ion channel -
no subunits
In what ways can neurotransmitters be removed from synaptic cleft
active transport
reuptake
diffusion
glial cells
enzymes breakdown
how do agonists interefere with transmission
mimic the action of the neurotransmitter
barbiturates
what do antagonists do
block the action of the neurotransmitter
what does cocaine do
blocks reuptake of dopamine
what does fluoxetine do
blocks reuptake of 5-HT for depression
what does amphetamine do
binds directly to dopamine transporter to increase in synapse
What methods do we have of visualising the living brain
C(a)T scan
MRI Scan
fMRI
What is a CT scan
computer assisted X ray scanner
rotates 1 degree at a time over 180
creates horizontal slices - tomograph
What is an MRI scan
strong magnetic field which causes protons to align in the same orientation
When a radio frequency wave passes through head, protons emit energy
MRI tuned to detect radiation emitted
what does an fMRI do
brain doesn’t store fuel, so our blood supply changes as the need arises
fMRI shows where the functional activity occurs
How do we record large scale physiological activity of the brain
electroencephalography
what is electroencephalography
non invasive method of recording electrical activity
uses a net of electrodes placed on scalp
what is an ERP
event related potential in Electroencephalography
ERP waveform tells us info about the neural basis/processing of activity
A disadvantage of Electroencephalography
poor spatial localisation due to recordings made at the scalp
better suited to when not where
Methods of recording from individual neurons
Electrophysiological techniques:
intracellular recording
extracellular recording
methods of activating neurons
stimulation:
electrical
optogenetic
what is optogenetic stimulation
extracts virus, injects virus into neurons
cells become sensitive to light
what is a way to investigate species-common behaviours
open field test - rat grooming
what is the social defeat paradigm
male rats are territorial and when rats fight over the territory, the consequences of defeat are social defeat.
The stress from the fight can make a drug more effective
what is operant conditioning
assessing behaviour with outcome
specific behaviour - reinforcement of punishment - increase/decrease possibility of response
what is semi natural learning paradigms
measures spatial memory and awareness - hippocampus
a rat is put in different locations and learns to swim directly to a platform
what can be investigated using field observations in rats
gene-behaviour relationship
social dominance
what is psychopathology
study of psychological and behavioural dysfunction occurring in mental illness or in social disorganisation
What is the biological approach to explaining psychopathology
neurochemical dysfunction causes lesions in brain structure
what is the psychological approach
where experiences cause psychopathology
cognitive, behaviour and learning
humanist - existential factors
What is the biopsychosocial approach to explaining psychopathology
It links experience and biology
Where environmental stress + genetic vulnerability leads to psychopathology
what is the statistical approach to defining psychopathology
having an attribute or behaviour that deviates substantially from the statistical norm
evaluate the statistical approach to defining psychopathology
+
offers objectivity and measurability
-
measurement error
extreme values doesn’t imply extreme problem
where is the cut off
What is the functional approach to defining psychopathology
someone who can’t function normally may be impaired in or maladapted in some way
disadvantages to functional approach to defining psychopathology
assumes universal needs
maladaptive behaviour might not mean mental illness
what is the distress based approach to defining psychopathology
based on an individual’s stress or inability to cope with problems
based on one’s own perspective of normality
disadvantages of distress based approach to psychopathology
doesn’t provide standard by which we should judge the behaviour
risk of medicalising normal reactions to adverse circumstances
what is the ‘p’ factor
P factor is a general risk factor to a non specific mental health problem
what factors are there (groups) to psychopathology
externalising group - alcohol, cannabis, drugs, smoking and conduct disorder
internalising group - major depressive disorder, generalised anxiety
thought disorder - OCD, mania, schizophrenia
general psychopathology - P factor
what is a co-morbidity
simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions in a patient
what is the network theory
conceptualises mental disorders as a network of symptoms
what are the central principals of clinical psychology research
informed consent
minimisation of harm
privacy and confidentiality
describe what is meant by informed consent
freedom of choice
voluntary
no implicit or explicit coercion
self determination
why might it be hard for patients to give informed consent in a clinical setting
patients have a fear that refusal may mean withdrawal of treatment/care
offering large financial incentives
blind experiments
competence
describe what is meant by minimisation of harm
research shouldn’t harm participants
people may expose themselves to potential harm for good of humanity
what types of ways may patients come to harm in studies
may ask about difficult past experiences
cause distress, embarassment
withholding benefits in RCT
social risk - differences between ethnic or cultural groups
what can be done to minimise harm
termination/suspension of data collection
wait list control - people get help later but symptoms are measured whilst on waiting list
what can be done to protect confidentiality
specify what will be done to data
use research codes for anonymity
procedures in place for audio/video recordings
what are the four general principles according to BPS
respect
competence
responsibility
integrity
What are the criteria for generalised anxiety disorder DSM-5
excessive anxiety and worry for at least 6 months
associated with at least 3 of the following:
restlessness
easily fatigued
difficulty concentrating
irritability
muscle tension
sleep disturbance
not attributable to any substance or condition
why use classification systems
they help us understand which things are related to each other and which things are different
helps us to understand causes, identify most appropriate treatments, determine if treatment is effective or not
Describe some weakness of methods of assessment of psychological disorders
describes observable symptoms, not explain
diagnosis can be stigmatising
diagnosis is categorical
disorders are distinct but often comorbidity is the norm
biopsychosocial explanations of drug use
a psychic, sometimes physical state resulting from the interaction between a living organism and a drug - characterised by behavioural responses
Includes a compulsion to take a drug on a periodic basis in order to experience its psychic effects
what is contingent tolerance
tolerance only develops to the effects of the drugw
what is conditioned tolerance
maximal tolerance effects are seen in the environment where the drug is taken
What routes are there for drug administration
ingestion - oral
injection - bypasses digestive tract
inhalation - tobacco and marijuana
absorption through mucus membranes - nose and mouth
how do people inject drugs
subcutaneously SC under the skin
intramuscularly IM into large muscles
intravenously IV into veins directly to the brain
What are methods to investigate neural and behavioural basis of drug use
self reporting
animal models -
behavioural preference
intra cranial self stimulation
self administration paradigm
What does nicotine do
binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on dopamine neuron’s
what does MDMA do
blocks reuptake of serotonin to keep it in the synapse
what does LSD do
binds to serotonin receptors and interfered with sleep waking systems
what does cannabis do
it is a primary psychoactive constituent
what does alcohol do
potentiates action of GABA to increase dopamine
How does an analgesic work
by activating pain blocking neurons in the spinal cord
Why do we take drugs (brain chemistry)
Brain imaging (fMRI) shows dopaminergic brain regions become activated by ‘nice things’ so drugs activate dopamine
How do we diagnose substance use disorder
If they meet any 2 from 11 diagnostic criteria in DSM 5
Three severity categories
mild = 2/3
moderate = 4/5
severe = 6+
someone is addicted if they continue to use drugs despite a sincere intention to do otherwise
What are some risk factors of substance use disorder (SUD)
Heritability
Comorbidity - smoking/drugs and mental disorders
Traumatic life events - particularly sexual abuse during childhood
Why do people take drugs (reasons)
to get ‘high’ - heroiine, cocaine, MDMA
increase alertness - nicotine, caffeine
social facilitation - alcohol MDMA, cocaine
alleviate distress - alcohol, heroin, nicotine
What is an ‘operant’ behaviour
A voluntary behaviour that is maintained by its consequences - people continue to use drugs even when negative effects increase
What is compulsive drug use
compulsion is evoked to explain addictive behaviour when negative consequences outweigh the positive
What is the clinical implication of drugs
It may be a brain disease, in which we should target the biological changes caused by drugs using medication
what is hypoactive with an addicted brain
the prefrontal regions:
anterior cingulate cortex, medial prefrontal cortex,
striatum and other regions
What is the flow for drugs to become a habit
Stimulus
Outcome (anticipated)
Response
A habit is a shift from SOR to SR
What is the dual-process theory
Where controlled cognitive processes (intentions to use) and automatic cognitive processes (attentional biases etc.) combine to become substance use
Addiction is when automatic is higher than controlled processes
can choice also play a role in addiction
Motivation to change is one of the best predictors of recovery
List different treatments of substance use disorders
talking therapies
self help groups
contingency management
pharmacotherapy
general observation
What are types of talking therapies
CBT - improves coping skills
Motivational Interviewing - change motivational balance
What are types of self help groups
AA - Alcoholics Anonymous
Residential rehab - private, expensive, AA principles
what pharmacotherapy treatments are there for smoking
nicotine replacement, vapes
varenicline - alleviates withdrawal
bupropion - antidepressant
what pharmacotherapy treatments are there for heroin
methadone - substitute
buprenorphine - longer acting substitute blocks effect of heroin
what pharmacotherapy treatments are there for alcohol
Naltrexone - blocks effects
Acomprosate - reset GABA and glutamate function
Disulfiram - prevents metabolism of alcohol
What are the benefits of general observation as a treatment to substance use
reduces motivation to use
increases motivation to abstain
provide people with resources that they need to change their behaviour
What is the assumption of the psychodynamic approach to treatment
unconscious conflicts originate from early life, evoke defines mechanisms - repression, denial and displacement - which turn into observable symptoms
What is the aim of psychodynamic treatment
identify unconscious conflicts
bring them to awareness
Technicques of psychodynamic therapy
free association - trigger words
psychoanalysis
dream analysis
What is the structure of an average psychodynamic treatment
highly variable, 3-5 sessions per week over many years
What is the assumption for the behaviour therapy approach to treatment (psychopathology)
many psychological disorders come from faulty learning - involving classic pavlovian and operant instrumental conditioning
What are the aims of behaviour therapy
using associative learning principles, to unless/relearn associations
Techniques of behaviour therapy and type of associative learning
Exposure therapy - classical
contingency management - operant
aversion therapy - classic al
response shaping - operant
What is the assumption with CBT treatment in psychopathology
there is a distorted way of thinking and cognitive biases cause symptoms
What is the aim of CBT
to change the dysfunction cognitions that underlie psychological disorders
What are some techniques of CBT
Challenging dysfunctional beliefs
Replacing with more rational and healthy beliefs
testing out new beliefs
What types of CBT are there
Mindfulness-based CBT
Acceptance and Commitment therapy
What is the assumption with humanistic therapies in psychopathology
that it is important to consider the person as a whole rather than specific behaviours and emotions that are ‘disordered’ - holistic
What are the aims of humanistic therapies
to encourage a client to find their own solutions and enable them to move from a negative to a positive state
What are some techniques of humanistic therapies
Unconditional positive regard - non judgemental
non directive = active listening
client centered therapy
What is an assumption of family/systemic therapies as a treatment of psychopathology
psychological disorders arise from dysfunctional relations and communications between close family members
what are some aims and techniques of family/systemic therapies
therapist leads discussion with the patient and close family members
What are the assumptions of pharmacotherapies
psychological disorders are caused by brain dysfunction that can be correct/alleviated by medication
What are some techniques of pharmacotherapies
GABA - Valium, Zolpidem (anxiolytic) for anxiety
SSRI’s - antidepressant for depression
Antipsychotics / neuroleptics - for schizophrenia/bipolar
What are the goals of treatment
relief from distress
increase self awareness and insight
teach coping skills
identify root cause
What ways are treatments delivered
One to one
group therapy
computerised
E - therapy
mobile apps
telephone / video conference
What counts as a success
remission vs improvement
change in emotion/behaviour
self reported improvement
What treatments work best for psychopathology
Most if not all therapies are more effective than control conditions
What are common factors shared across different treatments that contribute to their effectiveness
therapeutic alliance - relationship between therapist and client
empathy and active listening
hope and expectation
goal setting
psychoeducation
feedback and monitoring
emotional express and catharsis
what is a case study in terms of evaluating treatment of psychopathology
detailed report of treatment provided to an individual patient/outcome
improvement, remission or detoriation
What is a case series in terms of evaluating treatment of psychopathology
descriptive report of treatment and patient outcomes in groups of patients who have received different types of treatment
What factors make it difficult to determine whether a treatment works in the way that it’s intended
spontaneous remission, placebo effects and structured social support
