Developmental Flashcards
Ontogenetic development
Development of an individual over a lifetime
Microgenetic development
Changes that occur over a brief period of time
Phylogenetic development
Changes that occur of an evolutionary (thousands/millions of years)
define developmental psychology
study of change and stability over the lifespan
How we change physically, cognitively, behaviourally, socially over time due to biological, individual and environmental difference
what domains are there in developmental psychology
Physical - body, brain, senses
Cognitive - learning, memory, language
Psychosocial - personality, emotions, social relationships
What changes can there be in developmental study
Quantitative changes - easily measurable and quantifiable
Qualitative - changes in function or processes
Stability - not all development is change
What factors can affect development
nature and nurture
What is continuity
Gradually adding more of the same skill or characteristic
to what extent is development a series of gradual small continuous changes
What is discontinuity
process in which new ways of thinking or responding emerge at specific times
to what extent does development involve abrupt transformations / discontinuous stages
What are some enduring themes of developmental psychology
typical development includes a wide range of individual differences
nature & nurture influence development and interaction
development can be both continuous / discontinuous depending on the domain
What is the scientific method (6 steps)
Observation
Hypothesis
Test
Analyses
Report / Conclusions
Replicated?
OHTARR
What are some important considerations when designing a study
is it reliable / valid
when does change occur in children
what age group are we testing
WEIRD samples
What does WEIRD stand for
Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratoc
What are two ways we can understand change
run studies with different age groups and compare whether results change
track one group of children over time as they age
What is a cross sectional study
children of different ages studied at the same time
what is a longitudinal study
the same children are tested repeatedly at multiple time points as they grow older
what is a micro genetic study
extreme version of longitudinal
changes are examined as they occur
What is a strength of a cross sectional study
least time consuming
what is a weakness of a cross sectional study
can’t look at how individual children change as performance averaged over different individuals at each age
what is a strength of longitudinal studies
can look at both individual change and across children
what is a weakness of longitudinal studio
intensive to run,
costs a lot of money and time , drop out rates can be high
children may show change because they are getting practice on the tasks
- practice effect
what is a strength of microgenetic studies
very precise descriptions due to high intensity of measurements
what is a weakness of microgenetic studies
extremely intensive to run
only results in small samples
practice effects
what is an independent variable
variable the researcher manipulates / changes
what is a dependent variable
variable that is measured and expected to be influenced by the IV
What are some indirect / observational methods of research
interviews / questionnaires with parent/child
naturalistic observation
structured observation
what is a naturalistic observation
where children are observed ‘in the field’ / natural environment where the behaviour happens
what is a structured observation
a observation in a lab setting set up to evoke behaviour / interest
What is a cognitive measure
a task specifically designed to measure a process of interest
IQ, Memory
Accuracy and reaction time can be measured
what is a psychophysical measure
methods to uncover basic biological processes that sometimes help to infer perceptions and cognition
eyetracking
what does an EEG do
detects changes in electrical activity in cerebral cortex underpinning cognition such as attention and memory
what factors to consider when choosing which method
what do you want to understand
what context do you want to understand it in
age and ability of children
what are some challenges of working with children
limited language, attention and motor skills
recruiting children
parental interference
gaining consent
what are some reasons why people learn about developmental psychology
to help with social policies-
knowing how to create an education system
healthy lifespan development-
how best to foster child development
understanding human nature
disentangle effects of nature vs nurture
what is one of the main features of piaget’s theory of cognitive development
children are active learners who construct their knowledge through interacting with the environment
constructivist theory of cognitive development
what is a schema
mental representation / set of rules
what do schemas allow us to do
interact with the world through defining a particular category / behaviour
develop through experience - more complex with development
what is an action based schema
formed via physical interaction with environment
also known as reflexive schemas
what is a mental schema
complex, abstract thought, doesn’t require physical interaction
how do schemas develop
through assimilation and accommodation
what is assimilation
integration of new information into an existing schema
what is accommodation
adjustment of schema to new information
leads to growing and changing knowledge
happens to avoid disequilibrium
what is disequilibrium
occurs when new knowledge leads children to realise their current understanding isn’t correct / complete
promotes accommodation
what are the 4 stages of Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development (with ages)
sensorimotor 0-2
pre operational 2-7
concrete operational 7-12
formal operational 12+
what are some key milestones of sensorimotor stage
object permanence - 8 months
self awareness - 18 months
can explore the environment,
coordinating senses and motor skills
begin to develop mental representations
deferred imitation
what is deferred imitation
repetition of other people’s behaviours much later
what are the two sub stages of the preoperational stage
preconceptual 2-4
intuitive thought 4-7
what are some key milestones of the pre conceptual stage
develop symbolic thinking
egocentric
reduction in animism
what are some key milestones of intuitive thought
conservation of numbers
intuitive problem solving
systematically order, classify and quantify items
what are some key milestones of the concrete operational stage
logical mental operations with visual aid - more flexible
conservation of mass, length, weight and volume
compensation and reversibility
metacognition develops
understand cause-effect
what are some key milestones of the formal operational stage
abstract reasoning - enables child to speculate and reason
deduce conclusions from abstract statements
what are some limitations of the sensorimotor stage
infants may have object permanence prior to 8 months
they form mental representations before 18 months
- deferred imitation can occur early in life
what are some limitations to the preoperational stage
they can pass egocentrism tasks earlier of a simpler task is provided
conservation achieved earlier if a task is simplified
what are some limitations of the formal operational stage
abstract thinking can occur much later than 12
children need scaffolding - not to learn by themselves
guiding children can help them solve problems
what are some general weaknesses of Piagets theory
some of piaget’s tasks were too advanced for young children
demanding in terms of memory
Methodological limitations - piaget rarely reported methods in detail
piaget acknowledged variability to didn’t explain
cognitive development may not be discontinuous
what is socioculture
the society / social world of a child and the culture in which the child is living in at the time
how does socioculture influence aspects of our personality
cognitive skills we develop to handle tasks and problems in the environment
what is an example of socioculture influence on development (play)
play -
children imitate play
it affects type of play based activities that children engage in
ie Morelli et al. 2003 observed toddlers in three different communities
what is an example of socioculture influence on development (problem solving)
socioculture influences how familiar we are with thinking and reasoning about problems
ie. Cole et al 1971 -
Kpelle people better at estimating quantities of rice than USA natives
what is an example of socioculture influence on development (language)
subtle differences in language can lead to noticeable differences in cognition
what is crucial in promoting cognitive development
inner speech
what is self speech
private speech said out loud
lasts till age 7
what is inner speech
internalised monologue around 7 years old
transition of language from a tool for communication
thought
what evidence do we have that inner speech plays an important role in development
children engage more in self speech when the task is challenging - Berk 1992
Children who use speech are more attentive and perform better on cognitive tasks - Behrend et al. 1992
Children prevented from using inner speech perform more poorly - Lidstone, Meins and Fernyhough 2010
What is zone of proximal development
Vygotsky
Increase of development that a child can reach through assistance.
Children learn best when helped - sweet spot for learning
What is scaffolding
Bruner
Learning is enhanced when more competent people provide a framework that supports children thinking at a higher level than they could manage by themselves
scaffolding adjusted when child becomes more capable
what are the 5 aspects of scaffolding
Recruitment - engage interest
Reduction of degrees of freedom - reduce no. of acts needed to arrive at a situation
direction maintenance - maintain motivation
marking critical features - highlight important features
demonstration - model parts of task
How can we use scaffolding in education
Structure the learning activities
helpful hints tailored to current abilities
monitoring progress
collaborative learning exercises where students assist each other
How can we apply Vygotsky’s Theory to motor skills
cascading impact on other areas of development and learning
motor skills provide a new view of the world - altered perception - new opportunities to explore - new ways to interact and communicate
cultures may vary in norms and environments
motor milestones are not universal
How can we apply vygotsky’s theory to delaying gratification
greater success in adolscence and adulthood
ability to delay gratification
socioeconomic status and culture play an important role in how well children delay gratification
What is the concept of nature
(nature nurture debate)
genes determine behaviour
that we genetically inherit physical, personality traits, intelligence and preference from our parents
What is the concept of nurture
(nature nurture debate)
environment, upbringing and life experiences determine our behaviour - nurtured to behave in certain ways
what is nativism
the view that skills/abilities are hardwired into the brain at birth
Infants are born with this hard wired knowledge because it confers an advantage to survival
what is empiricism
The view that humans aren’t born with built in core knowledge
All knowledge results from learning and experience
Tabula rasa - clean/blank state
What is heritability
how much variation of a specific trait in a particular population is the result of genetic variation among individuals in a population
what is environmentally
How much variation of a specific trait in a particular population is the result of environmental factors
what is a phenotype
interaction of genetic and environmental factors that result in a person’s physical appearance, traits and behaviour
what does precocial mean and give an example
when something is mature before its time
the young are physically mobile from birth / hatching
extreme version is maleo bird
chicks can fly from birth, no parental rearing or environmental input
What does altricial mean and give an example
nourisher
young are more helpless, not mobile from birth and are dependent on parents for food and safety
ie. humans
babies are super reliant on their caregivers
what is the argument for nature for infants being able to imitate, look at faces, and early communicative behaviours
could be innate
what is the argument for nurture for infants being able to imitate, look at faces, and early communicative behaviours
infants may develop preferences in first few weeks of life when interacting with caregivers
How do researchers use genetic studies to research nature vs nurture
they look at variations of genes AGCT in our DNA and test how variations correlate with traits
what do heritability models do
help predict average value for a group of people
a weakness of studying heritability
cannot help identify specific genes that are involved in a particular trait
estimates depends on the environment
how can families help with genetic studies
identical twins
can compare closely related family members to see if a particular trait is influenced by genes
What IQ tests are there
Stanford - Binet Test V
WISC - V
developed to measure intelligence, verbal ability, problem solving and reasoning
Role of Nature in IQ
Heritability - identical twins not raised together had a high correlation in IQ so the heritability is high
plays a large role in determining variability of IQ in a population
How does Nurture play a role in educational achievement
environment has a large impact on education - due to resources, educational activities at home and school quality
How does poverty affect educational achievement
Mani et al 2013
Farmer’s cognitive performance diminished prior to harvest when compared to after
Poverty correlates with physical cognitive and neural development. The longer a child lives in poverty, the worse the attainment will be
Perpetuates cycle of inequality and deprivation
what is an example of evocative behaviour
genotype-environment interaction theory
cooperative, attentive children will receive more pleasant and instructional interactions from adults around them than children who are disruptive
what is an example of active behaviour
genotype-environment interaction theory
people seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating
our choices may be due to personality, motivations or ability
child who loves books may spend a lot of time in the library or find friends that like to read
what is an example of passive behaviour
genotype-environment interaction theory
parents who enjoy reading are more likely to provide their children with books
children are more likely to be skilled readers who enjoy reading both genetic and environmental reasons
what hormones do females have
high oestrogen, progesterone
low testosterone
what is a definition of gender
something assigned at birth in line with biological sex - refers to a broad social construct
takes into account psychological, behavioural, social and cultural aspects
what is gender-typing
a process where we adopt observable behaviours in line with our construct of gender - associated with societal norms of gender / gender stereotypes
combined influence of biological, psychological and sociocultural processes - biopsychosocial model
What is a cognitive theory of development of gender-typed behaviours
Kohlberg 1966 Three Stages of Gender
as children develop cognitively, gender develops in three stages, driven by natural maturation
What are the three stages of gender (Kohlberg) + ages
Stage 1 - Gender Identity
2-3 years old
Stage 2 - Gender stability
4-5
Stage 3 - Gender Constancy
6-7
Describe Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory
Gender identity
children begin to label based on external appearance
don’t understand difference between biological sex/gender or that both tend to remain stable over time
Describe stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory
Gender stability
Children recognise that gender typically remain constant but are still based on appearance
boys - men
girls - women
Describe Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory
Gender constancy
understand that gender identity is invariant despite changes to appearance, dress or activity
not expected to adopt gender typed behaviours consistently until this stage
begin to seek same sex playmates, gender - typed behaviours, activities
considered to have gained an understanding of gender - seek same sex role models to identify with
Why will people behave in ways that are consistent with their self conception
cognitive consistency is gratifying
Is Kohlbergs theory valid cross culturally
yes
What is the evidence for Kohlbergs theory
Ruble et al. 1981 study
children with low gender constancy played with toys from both gender-typed advertisements
What does the biological theory of cognitive development focus on
androgens
what are androgens
group of hormones that affect physical development
high in men than women
What do androgens do
responsible for forming external genitalia during prenatal development
linked to aggression
fluctuations can influence behaviour
increase in response to perceived threats which leads to increased aggression
What is androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
People who are genetically male but androgen receptor malfunction leads to external characteristics of a woman
typically identify as female
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia
affects adrenal glands
genetically female, may develop male genitalia as a result
girls may choose physically active play / play fighting
What are some arguments for the biological theory of gender development
twins are likely to have concordant gender identity
multiple genes are implicated in development of gender identity in transgender individuals
transgender children prefer gender-typed behaviours that match their identity early on
What are some arguments against the biological theory for gender development
no causal link between hormones, genes and behaviour established
biological sex is complex, different aspects may contribute to gender development to different extents
What is the social cognitive theory - Bussey and Bandura (1999)
Proposed three interacting causal factors that determine gender development
Personal factors
behaviour patterns
environmental factors
What three main ways does gender type behaviour develop
Tuition - children directly taught gendered behaviours
enactive experience - children learn to guide their own behaviours by considering reactions from others
observational learning - seeing others behave and watching consequences of behaviour on others’ reactions
What evidence is there for tuition in gender development
Grusec et al. 1996
Gender assignment of chores implies natural division of labour
may influence child interests and understanding of gender roles
Crowley et al 2001
parents were 3x more likely to offer explanations to boys in a science museum than to girls
what evidence is there for enactive experience in gender development
gender schemas develop through conditioning - gender appropriate behaviours rewarded through praise
Langlois and Downs 1980
Fathers have more positive response when children played with gender appropriate toys
Why can gender typing be more rigid for boys
fathers instil a typical male behaviour in sons,
Lose status when engaging in female behaviour
people react more negatively to boys than girls
what evidence is there for observational learning
Tenenbaum et al 2002
Positive correlation between parent gender schemas and children’s gender attitudes
How can marketing influence gender-typing
labelling of toys / colour affect what toy girls/boys play with
What is the gender-similarity hypothesis
Hyde 2005
Looked at female-male gender differences across 128 domains
males and females are alike on most psychological and some non psychological variables
more alike than different
What is the assumption with math in terms of gender
Less women in STEM
stereotypes about maths ability prominent in children, parents and teachers
adult men are better than adult women at maths
Why are men seen as better at maths than women
Girls show high maths anxiety, less confidence in ability
tuition
teacher perceptions
girls tend to use procedural strategies that have been taught whereas boys use bolder, novel strategies
What gender differences are there for aggression
boys enact more direct
girls use more indirect
what is direct aggression
verbal / physical acts
what is indirect aggression
relational aggressive acts by manipulating peer relationships and damaging social position
Spreading gossip
excluding friends
threatening to end friendship
Why is there a difference in the type of aggression for males and females
biological
females have lower physical strength and need to rely on indirect aggression
sociocognitive
girl friend groups are often smaller but closer - indirect is more harmful
tuition -
differences in degree to which parents discourage aggressive behaviour - leads to more covert forms from girls
What spatial skills do we focus on
mental rotation - identifying model in a different orientation
spatial perception - determining spatial relations of objects with respect to one’s own body
spatial visualisation
being able to visualise spatially presented info
What is the difference in spatial skills for men and women
reliable difference in spatial skills favouring men but the difference gets smaller over time
mental rotation - high diff
spatial perception - medium
spatial visualisation - small
why are boys better at spatial skills
Serbin and Connor 1979
Boys get more experience interacting with spatially complex environments
participating in spatial activities such as ball playing positively correlated to spatial skills
Hoffman et al 2011
more pronounced differences in society with greater gender inequality
What are main key concepts of emotion
physiological factors - heart rate, breathing, hormone levels
subjective feelings
cognitions / perceptions associated with emotional state
expressive behaviour - outward expression
desire to take action
fight or flight
What is the action tendency for disgust
active rejection of thing causing disgust
What is the action tendency for fear
fight or flight
self preservation
What is the action tendency for anger
forward movement
eliminate obstacles to goal
What is the action tendency for sadness
disengagement
withdrawal
What is the action tendency for shame
withdrawal
avoiding others
hiding
What is the action tendency for guilt
movement to make amends
inform others
punish self
What are some cues of positive emotions in children
smiles
positive emotion at 0-4 weeks
infants exhibit fleeting smiles during REM sleep
early smiles reflexive rather than social
when do infants smile in reaction to external stimuli
3-8 weeks
when do infants start to smile socially towards people
3 months
when do infants smile primarily at familiar people and prolong positive social bonds
7 months
what happens at the end of the first year of life - positive emotion
laugh at surprising or unexpected events like funny noises
What are the first signs of negative emotion infants express
generalised distress
when do infants start to experience fear
4 months
infants become wary of unfamiliar objects / events
when do signs of fear to strangers occur in infants
6-7 months
intensifies >2 years depending on temperament
when do infants develop fear to other things
7 months
When do infants start to experience separation anxiety
8 months
what happens with separation anxiety between 8-15 months
increases then declines
has cross cultural evidence
when do infants start to express anger
around a year - increases up to 16 months of age
what happens at age 2 regarding anger
gain more control of the environment so anger lessens
anger common when control is taken away
When do toddlers anger decline
around 36 months of age due to better language and self regulation
when are infants able to distinguish between happy, surprised and angry faces
3 months
when do infants distinguish between fear, sadness and interest
7 months
What is social referencing
Saarni et al 2006
Young children are sensitive to others’ reactions and this affects their own emotions
can calibrate their own emotions to situations by understanding others
when do children begin to show a wider range of emotions - self conscious emotions
2 years
start to show guilt, pride, shame and embarrassment
fostered through children’s growing awareness of what others expect
why do children begin to show a range of emotions
linked to children developing sense of self (Lewis 1998)
what is guilt
regret / remorse about one’s actions and desire to undo damage
what is shame
focused on oneself, feeling exposed, wanting to hide
why do some toddlers show behaviours indicative of guilt whereas others show shame
individual differences may be related to parenting styles
Hoffman 2000
shame - when parents emphasise child is bad
guilt - when parents emphasise badness of behaviour and effect
what is the argument for yes regarding whether emotions are innate
Darwin argued that facial expressions for basic emotions are innate to species - found in very young infants
discrete emotion theory
What is the discrete emotions theory
Izard 2011
innately packaged with specific set of physiological, bodily, facial expressions so that they can be differentiated very early in life
what is the argument for no, emotions are not innate
emotions are not distinct from one another at the beginning
environment plays a role in expression of emotions
What are the three basic affect systems
joy / pleasure
anger / frustration
wariness / fear
What is the functionalist approach to emotion
basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal in a given context
emotional reactions affected by social goals - includes other people involved and values learned
some emotions need interaction to develop
what is emotional regulation
initiating, inhibiting and modulating the following aspects of emotional function
physiological factors
subjective feelings
cognitions associated with emotional state
expressive behaviour
Why is emotional regulation important
better emotional regulation leads to better interactions, well adjusted and liked by peers/adults
do better in school
help pay attention
better behaved
emotional regulation fosters social competence
What are the three stages of emotional regulation development
Caregiver - self regulation
Cognitive strategies
selection of strategies
Describe the caregiver to self regulation stage of emotional regulation development
transitioning from caregiver-dependent to self regulation
6 months - rudimentary self regulation
6 month onwards
develop ability to distract themselves by playing on their own when distressed
more likely to negotiate rather than engage in emotional outbursts
What do infants do as rudimentary self regulation
attempt to reduce distress bt averting gaze
self soothing
how do children develop the ability to distract themselves for emotional regulation
due to rapid cognitive developments in language, attention and inhibitory control
Describe the cognitive strategy stage of emotional regulation development
use of cognitive strategies and problem solving to control negative emotions
use of behavioural emotion regulation strategies - thumb sucking, rubbing blankets
what do older children do to use cognitive strategies
rethink goals to adapt to unpleasant situations
describe the selection of strategies stage of emotional regulation development
over time, ability improves to select cognitive OR behavioural strategies appropriate to situation
Why does our ability to select a strategy improve over time
due to development in planning and problem solving across adolescence
able to distinguish between stressors and uncontrollable stressors
what is temperament
person’s emotional and attentional reactivity and self regulation that shows consistency across situations and stability over time
What are aspects of temperament
Fearful distress / inhibition - distress and withdrawal in new situations
irritable distress - fussiness, anger
attention span/persistence - duration of focus on objects of interest
activity level - how much infant moves
positive effect / approach - smiling, laughing, degree of cooperativeness
rhythmicity - regularity and predictability of routines
FIAPAR
What is the nature vs nurture argument for temperament
nature - hereditary
identical twins have more similar temperaments than non identical twins
nurture
extreme environment stress linked to emotional regulation and temperament
How can temperament be measured physiologically
measure cortisol
cortisol reactivity - amount released in given situation linked to temperament differences
children his in negative emotion, with poorer emotional regulation show larger increase in cortisol
how can irritability in infants be measured
when having to wait for food / liquids, how often did the baby
seem not bothered
show mild fussing
cry loudly
have temper tantrums
get mad when mildly criticised
how can attention span be measured in infants
how often during the last week did the baby
look at pictures in books for 5 mins or longer
play with one toy for 10 mins or longer
when drawing / colouring, show strong concentration
when building / putting something together, become involved and work for long periods of time
how can activity level be measured in infants
during feeding, how often did the baby
lie or sit quietly
squirm or kick
wave arms
tend to run rather than walk
when outside, sit quietly?
how to measure positive affectivity in infants
when tossed playfully, how often did the baby
smile
laugh
smile/laugh during play with parents
have a serious expression during play
what is a strength of using a questionnaire to measure temperament
parents have extensive knowledge of child’s behaviour in many situations
what is a weakness of using a questionnaire to measure temperament
parents may not be objective
don’t have a wide range of knowledge of other children’s behaviour to compare
what is a strength of using a lab studies to measure temperament
data is more objective
less likely to be biased
what is a weakness of using a lab study to measure temperament
children’s behaviour is only observed in a limited set of circumstances
could reflect their mood on the day
what is a strength of using a physiological measures to measure temperament
data is more objective
what is a weakness of using a physiological measures to measure temperament
hard to tell if they’re a cause or consequence of temperament in given situation
What are some challenges to infancy research
infants can’t talk, understand little language
often not capable of producing complex / organised behaviour
can’t move around
get grumpy quickly
what are some issues regarding designing a procedure for infancy research
need to use methods suitable for non linguistic populations
need help from parents
need to take advantage of whatever behaviours or dispositions infants possess
be careful not to over-interpret infant behaviour
what can infants do
suck
look
have a heartbeat
crawl , eventually walk
how can we use infants sucking in research
infants given dummer and a baseline sucking rate established
show infants a stimulus and see if suck rate changes
what are we looking for in the visual paired comparison task
can see if infants can tell two things are different
can infants remember the first picture
what is the visual paired comparison task
infants shown a picture until they habituate
then shown two pictures at once, and measure how much they look at the new picture
what is habituation
decrease in response to stimulus after repeated presentations
how long does it take for basic perceptual aspects of human visual system to fully develop
around a year
what can newborn infants see
dim, fuzzy
light, shapes and movement
not yet capable of fixation
range of vision - around 30cm
what can 1-2 month year olds see
infants can fixate,
distinguish high contrast colours
black / white
NOT red / orange
what can a 4 month old see
depth perception and colour vision is better
follows objects with their eyes
what can an 8 month old see
range of effective vision increase
can recognise people across a room
what happens at 1 year old for vision
basic visual skills broadly similar to adult levels
what is Fantz 1961 study, and what does it prove
showed a series of stimuli and observed their behaviour
infants show a small but consistent preference for the face like configuration
from birth, infants show a preferential interest in face like stimuli
what is perceptual narrowing regarding visual perception
when infants visual perception gets increasingly attuned to regular features of the child’s environment
What is the ‘other race’ effect
a tendency to more easily recognise faces of the race one is most familiar with
gradually become good at distinguishing between kinds of faces seen around but lose ability to discriminate between faces they don’t see often
When can an infant perceive sound
in the womb prior to birth
26 weeks - foetus show changes in heart rate as direct response to stimuli
Kisilvesky 1992
When can a foetus recognise their mother’s voice
at full term
why is understanding speech a complex process
we need to segment a continuous stream of sound into separate parts
how does speech perception become more specialised with age
infants are initially able to distinguish between phonemes that don’t occur in the native language but narrow to sound contained in their own language when older
what is infant directed speech
a common way of adapting your speech to have exaggerated pitch, range and speed
exaggerating existing patterns of speech
why do people use Infant directed speech
infants pay more attention
thought to help infants extract small chunks of language
important first step in infants learning language
what is perceptual narrowing regarding hearing for infants
infants gradually exchange vast potential for processing all types of info for swifter greater expertise in processing information they see most often in their environment
what happens to perceptual information that infants extract from the world around them
acts as the basis for conceptual development
what motor skills does a 1-3 month old have
GROSS
stepping reflex,
lifts head,
sits with support
FINE
grasps objects if placed in hands
sucks
control of eye movements
smile
what motor skills does a 2-4 month old have
GROSS
lifts head
uses arms for support
FINE
grasps cube when placed near hand
what motor skills does a 5-8 month old have
GROSS
sits without support
FINE
reaches for and grasps objects using one hand
what motor skills does a 5-10 month old have
GROSS
stands with support and pulls self to stand
FINE
points at object of interest
pincer grip - thumb and finger
what motor skills does a 5-11 month old have
GROSS
crawl
FINE
grasps spoon
learns to direct food to mouth
what motor skills does a 10 - 14 month old have
GROSS
stands alone
walks alone
FINE
puts object in containers
builds block towers
produces first meaningful word
what motor skills does a 13-18 month old have
GROSS
walks backwards and sideways
runs
climbs
walks up stairs
FINE
holds crayon with fingers, scribbles
what motor skills does a 18-30 month old have
GROSS
runs easily
jumps
skips
rides and steers tricycle
walks on tiptoes
FINE
picks up small objects
vocabulary and articulation increases rapidly
when does locomotion emerge
midpoint of the 1st year
why is early motor development impaired
poor muscle strength
under developed motor coordination
what does the onset of crawling bring
new experiences of being in different changing contexts which can affect cognition
acquiring ability move unaided brings improvement to memory
Herbert et al 2007
what is the definition of crawling
ability to traverse at least 1m using arms and/or knees
what does walking require
muscle development
different patten of limb coordination
balance control
Adolph and Tamis-LeMonda 2014
Why do infants give up being expert crawlers to be poor walkers
walking covers more space
gives access to more distant objects
allows different interaction
affords better visual input
what is perception
how we see, hear or experience the world
what is cognition
how we form, use and act upon internal thoughts and states
mental representations
What is the violation of expectation task
children are shown an event repeatedly until they habituate
then shown two variations of the same event
if they look at one event for longer, it suggests they’re surprised
what does the discrepancy between Piaget’s research and new research regarding object permanence mean
children have knowledge but are only gradually able to act on that knowledge
cognitive development in first year of life involves building links between knowledge and actions
What are two ways in which infants demonstrate understanding of numbers
precise understanding of very small numbers
approximate understanding of larger numbers
What is Wynn’s 1992 study regarding numbers
infants were shown 1+1 = 3 and 1+1 = 2
they looked longer at 1+1=3 which suggest they have a more precise sense of number than just ‘there should be more than one’
what is the approximate number system
a system for infants to estimate large quantities
allows broad comparisons of quantity
doesn’t allow for representation of specific numbers, only ratio
what is significant about infants ability with numbers
lays the groundwork for more impressive math skills later in life
when do children acquire object permanence cognitively
4 months
when can children act on their knowledge of object permanence
12 months
what is executive function
basic cognitive processes that singly, or in concert, underpin complex, goal-oriented behaviour
Carlson et al 2005
EFs complement our automatic cognitive processes
when do we use executive functions
learning a new skill
carrying out complex task
doing something difficult / dangerous
non routine / new situations
habitual / salient response needs to be overcome
whenever autopilot won’t be enough
what does domain-specific mean
something is only useful in very specific contexts
what are three executive functions we focus on
working memory
inhibitory control
cognitive flexibility
what does working memory do
store information temporarily
manipulate information
maintain and update our task goals
remember what order we should do tasks in
what does inhibitory control do
stop an ongoing/habitual response
suppressing distractions
goal - appropriate behaviours produced
what does cognitive flexibility do
able to change and update goal rented behaviour
in response to changes in our goals
in the environment
Why did EFs arise
as a way of characterising performance deficits we see in patients with brain damage - linked to deficits arising from damage to frontal lobes
Luria 1976
what do EFs enable us to do
keep track of what we should be doing in what order
overcome distracting info or interfering response tendencies
monitor/adapt behaviour as required
What is the Stroop task
Reading out the colour of the word, not the word itself
in what conditions can you face EF impairments
depression
bipolar disorder
schizophrenia
substancee abuse
frontal lobe injury
ADHD
autism
fragile x syndrome
effects of EF impairments
having poor EF
people might mistake you for being
disorganised, lazy, incompetent sloopy or not bright
EF encompasses many essentisal areas of daily living
why is it hard to conclusively measure intentional behaviour before 3
reflective controlled behaviour is common after 3
greater myelination at 3
executive development continues into adolescence
what is storage in terms of working memory
‘repeat back the following letters AYTP’
what is manipulation in terms of working memory
repeat the following in reverse order AYTP
when can storage and manipulation be assessed
as young as 2
why do children with poor working memory struggle with structured activitiess
working memory becomes overloaded so information needed to guide activity gets lost
leads children to guess / abandon task
Why do children need age appropriate stroop-like tasks (and give examples)
reading is not an automatic process for children
ie. day/night stroop
what does poor inhibitory control cause
makes it hard to think before we act
go with first impulse that comes to mind
Describe the Dimension Change Card task
se two target cards and must match other cards to them
first by ‘dimension’ (rule) and then another
What is the dimension change card task measuring
cognitive flexibility
What are the usual results of a dimension change card task
3 year olds are able to sort by initial rule, but fail to switch rules and keep sorting by the old rule
they can usually report what rule they should be using but there is a breakdown of cognitive control
dissociation between child’s knowledge and behaviour
What is Cognitive flexibility like in early school years
with regard to Dimension Card Change task
2y - respond randomly
3y - persevere with old rule
4y - switch to new rule
6y - freely switch from one to other
adults make virtually no errors but are slower after a change due to inhibitory demands
why may we struggle to combine EFs
additional difficulties due to need to coordinate functions and prioritise different goals
why is EF important in the classroom
vital for regulating behaviour
maintaining focus and interacting with teachers/peers
EF and literacy
how do they link
4y with better working memory understand complex sentences better
learn new labels for toys faster
important for vocal acquisition
EFs are shown to predict success in…
literacy
reading
maths
different types of reasoning
general academic success
how are maths and EF related
it is a complex skill involving coordinating different processes, keeping track of info, what order to carry out steps in while avoiding distractions
WM and inhibitory contrrol associated with better maths in 6-8y
what are different types of reasoning
counterfactual
mental-state
symbolic
