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Neuroscience Flashcards

1
Q

Gray matter

A

Cell bodies and dendrites

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2
Q

White matter

A

Nerve fibers, axon bundles, and myelin sheathing

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3
Q

Brain stem

A

Autonomic functions, regulates CNS and connects PNS and upper brain
Regulates cardiac, respiratory function, BP, alertness. Maintains consciousness and regulates sleep

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4
Q

Hindbrain

A

Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum, Reticular formation base

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5
Q

Myelencephalon/Medulla

A

Mainly controls reflexes but also controls sleep, attention, and movement

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6
Q

Metencephalon- Pons

A

Connects brain parts to spine

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7
Q

Metencephalon- Cerebellum

A

Muscle coordination, balance, and posture

Some memory, learning, emotion

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8
Q

Reticular formation

A

Oldest part of the brain

Alertness, thirst, sleep, involuntary muscles like heart

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9
Q

Mesencephalon

Midbrain

A

Tectum, tegmentum, rest of reticular formation

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10
Q

Tectum

A

Controls vision and hearing

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11
Q

Tegmentum

A

Reticular formation, sensorimotor system, analgesic effect of opiates

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12
Q

Forebrain

A

Diencephalon and telencephalon

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13
Q

Diencephalon

A

Thalamus and hypothalamus
Processes incoming sensory info and relays to other parts of the brain
Interaction between CNS and endocrine system

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14
Q

Telencephalon

A

Limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus

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15
Q

Corticospinal tract

A

Connections between brain and spine

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16
Q

Thalamus

A

Channels sensory information to the cerebral cortex, motor control

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17
Q

Problems in Thalamus

A

Abnormal movement, disruption of sleep, can’t integrate sensory input, attention difficulty

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18
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Controls ANS biological motivations, like hunger and thirst, and pituitary gland, regulates sleep/wake libido cycle, homeostasis

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19
Q

Problems in Hypothalamus

A

Disrupted sleep, change in appetite, weight change, body heat dysregulation

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20
Q

Pituitary gland

A

“Master gland” of endocrine/hormone system

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21
Q

Limbic System

A

Fleeing, fighting, feeding, and fornication

Plays a role in regulating human emotion (affective tone) and sleep

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22
Q

Hippocampus

A

Memory, transfers from short term to long term memory, navigation and spatial

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23
Q

Problems in hippocampus

A

Forgetfulness, inattention, amnesia, problems encoding new material

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24
Q

Amygdala

A

Controls emotional reactions like fear and anger, arousal

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25
Q

Problem in amygdala

A

Mania, depression, emotional dysregulation, anger, negative thinking

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26
Q

Fornix

A

Connects hypothalamus to cerebrum and hippocampus

Problems with sleep, appetite and memory

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27
Q

Mesolimbic system

A

Found in limbic system, brain’s reward pathway (dopamine)

Plays a role in mood disorders and schizophrenia

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28
Q

Hypothalamic- Pituitary- Adrenal (HPA)

A

Feedback loop links hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands.
Regulates reactions to stressSignificant role in PTSD

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29
Q

Cingulate Gyrus

A

Link areas in the brain dealing with emotion and decisions

Cognitive flexibility, shifting attention

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30
Q

Anterior cingulate cortex

A

Impulse control, adaptability, cooperation, decision making

Symptomatic: Obsession, compulsion, worrying, roadrage

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31
Q

Posterior cingulate cortex

A

Memory

Symptomatic: holding onto negative past events

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32
Q

Fusiform Gyrus

A

Facial recognition- damage in dementia

Prosopagnosia-inability to recognize familiar faces

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33
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Outer ½ inch of the cerebral hemispheres. Seat of intellectual and sensory functioning and split into lobes

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34
Q

Neocortex

A

90% of the cerebral cortex,
The other 10 percent has fewer than 6 layers and more primitive
Thinking, language, higher level functions

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35
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Speech, reasoning, problem solving
Holds Broca’s area for speech
Premotor cortex, motor cortex, prefrontal regions

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36
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Most specialized, controls vision

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37
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Responsible for somatosensory system
Speech, touch, pain, proprioception
Integrates sensory info for movement

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38
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Responsible for hearing, processing auditory information, affective tone, memory, recognition. Also includes Wenicke’s area for speech

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39
Q

Gyri

A

Bumps on the cortex surface

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40
Q

Sulci

A

Fissures on the cortex surface

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41
Q

Meninges

A

Tough connective tissues that protect the brain and spinal cord
Dura, arachnoid, pia, subarachnoid filled with CSF

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42
Q

Blood-Brain barrier

A

Protects the brain by making it extremely difficult for toxic substances to pass from blood to brain since cells in blood vessels are tightly packed

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43
Q

Ventricles

A

Chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulates the brain from shock
Produce Cerebral Spinal Fluid

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44
Q

Superior Colliculus

A

Controls visual reflexes and appears as bumps on the brainstem

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45
Q

Inferior colliculus

A

Controls auditory reflexes and appears as bumps on the brainstem

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46
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Control large, voluntary muscle movements, plays role in regulating thoughts, feelings
Degeneration related to dysfunction in Parkinsons and Huntingtons

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47
Q

Basal Ganglia Structures

A

Caudate, Putamen, Nucleus accumbens, Globus pallidus, Substantia nigra

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48
Q

Caudate

A

Regulates information, movements thoughts and feelings

Symptomatic: Anxiety

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49
Q

Putamen

A

Acts with Caudate to influence motor activities

Symptomatic: Tics, fine motor problems, poor gate

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50
Q

Nucleus Accumbens

A

Liaison with limbic system

Symptomatic: paranoia depression, decreased motivation

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51
Q

Globus Pallidus

A

Relays info from caudate and putamen to thalamus

Symptomatic: poor concentration

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52
Q

Substantia Nigra

A

Produces dopamine

Symptomatic: tremors, rigidity

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53
Q

Prefrontal system

A

Executive functioning, commonly implicated in psychiatric disorders
Dorsolateral, orbitofrontal, and medial basal

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54
Q

Dorsolateral

A

Problem solving, planning, self, regulation, sequencing, critical thinking, temporal ordering

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55
Q

Orbital Frontal

A

Inhibition, socially appropriate behavior

Symptomatic: impulsivity, poor judgment

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56
Q

Medial Basal

A

Goal-directed behavior, ability to feel and express emotions, forward thinking
Symptomatic brady kinesia, flat affect

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57
Q

Bradykinesia

A

Slow movement- Parkinson’s disease

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58
Q

Cortical association areas

A

Areas on the cortex that respond to certain functions, damage in certain areas would result in certain dysfunction like apraxia, agnosia etc.

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59
Q

Apraxia

A

Inability to organize movement

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60
Q

Agnosia

A

Difficulty processing sensory information

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61
Q

Aphasia

A

Language disorder

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62
Q

Alexia

A

Inability to read

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63
Q

Agraphia

A

Inability to write

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64
Q

Broca’s and Wernicke’s Area

A

Left frontal lobe

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65
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Can understand but has a difficulty speaking

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66
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Can speak but no longer understands how to correctly choose words
Speech is fluent but nonsensical

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67
Q

Hyperphagia

A

Overeating with no satiation of hunger

Damage to hypothalamus

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68
Q

Sham rage

A

Incredible rage easily provokes when cerebral cortex is removed

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69
Q

Stereotaxic Instruments

A

Implanting electrodes into animals brains in experiments

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70
Q

fMRI

A

Measures oxygen flow

Measures activity during certain tasks

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71
Q

PET

A

Scan glucose metabolism to measure activity in certain regions

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72
Q

NEURONS

A

NEURONS

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73
Q

Efferent nerve cells

A

Part of somatic nervous system (PNS), carries impulses from sensory cells to CNS

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74
Q

Afferent nerve cells

A

Part of somatic nervous system (PNS), carries impulses from CNS to sensory cells

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75
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Activated when observing another person’s behavior, important for empathy, dysregulation in autism
Frontal and parietal lobes

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76
Q

Dendrite

A

Receive impulses

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77
Q

Cell Body (Soma)

A

Largest central portion
Gray matter
Nucleus that directs activity

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78
Q

Axon Hillock

A

Where the soma and axon connect

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79
Q

Axon

A

Transmits impulses of the neuron
Bundles are nerve fibers
White matter

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80
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Dips between beads of myelin sheath

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81
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty sheath that allows faster conduction of axon impulses

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82
Q

Terminal buttons

A

Ends of axon, contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters

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83
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals that stimulate nearby cells

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84
Q

Cell membrane

A

Covers the whole neuron and has selective permeability

Sometimes lets ions (positive charges) through

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85
Q

Synapse or synaptic gap

A

Space between two neurons where they communicate

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86
Q

Presynaptic cell

A

End of one neuron

The terminal buttons

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87
Q

Postsynaptic cell

A

Beginning of another neuron

The dendrites

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88
Q

Glial Cells

A

Other cells in nervous system
Help support neurons
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells
Half the volume of CNS

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89
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Provide myelin in the central nervous system

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90
Q

Schwann cells

A

Provide myelin in the peripheral nervous system

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91
Q

NEURAL
TRANSMISSION
STEPS

A

How cells communicate with each other

92
Q
  1. Resting potential
A

Inactivated state of a neuron

Neuron is negatively charged and cell membrane does not let ions in

93
Q
  1. Presynaptic cell
A

Fires and releases neurotransmitters from terminal buttons

94
Q
  1. Postsynaptic

receptors

A

Detect the presence of neurotransmitters and cause ion channels to open

95
Q
  1. Postsynaptic

potentials

A

Changes in a nerve cell charge as a result of stimulation

Two forms: Excitatory and inhibitory

96
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

A

Positive charges are allowed into cell and increase chance a cell will fire- depolarization

97
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

Few positive charges are let out decrease chance a cell will fire- hyperpolarization (becomes even more negative comparably)

98
Q
  1. Action potential or Nerve impulse
A

Cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions and “fires”

99
Q
  1. All-or-none law
A

Once a minimum threshold for stimulation is met, nerve impulse will be sent
Intensity is always the same

100
Q
  1. Saltatory conduction
A

Action potential travels down axon, jumping from one node to the next
At terminal button, neurotransmitters are released
Now, this neuron is the presynaptic cell

101
Q
  1. Absolute refractory period
A

The time after a neuron fires in which it cannot respond to stimulation

102
Q
  1. Relative Refractory period
A

Time after the absolute refractory where the neuron can fire but needs much stronger stimulus

103
Q
  1. Reuptake
A

After neurotransmitter has done its job
Reabsorbed by presynaptic cell
Or it can be deactivated by enzymes

104
Q

Acetylcholine

A

First identified neurotransmitter Contracting skeletal muscles
Involved in PNS

105
Q

Endorphins

A 
Pleasure and analgesia
Exogenous endorphins (heroin or morphine) highly addictive
106
Q

Monoamines

A

Indoleamines (serotonin)

Catecholamines (dopamine)

107
Q

Serotonin

A

Transmission of catecholamines

Lack is linked to depression

108
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Make a large number of catecholamine in response to stress

109
Q

Catecholamines

A

Dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine

Helps body for fight or flight (especially epinephrine and norepinephrine)

110
Q

Dopamine

A 
Inhibitory
Produced in substantia nigra
Regulate hormonal response, causes psychotic symptoms
Too little- parkinson's
Too much- schizophrenia
Feelings of reward (addiction)
111
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Synthesized from dopamine
Increase arousal
Influence reward system
ADHD/Depression

112
Q

Epinephrine

A

AKA adrenaline over all body tissues
Increases blood and oxygen supply to brain and muscles while diminishing other bodily processes not important in stress (digestion, sexual)

113
Q

Amino Acids

A

Fast acting, directed synapsis

Two important ones are glutamate and GABA

114
Q

Glutamate

A

Most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter
Regulates cortical and subcortical functioning
Important for cognitive function

115
Q

GABA

A

Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter
Decreases activity, lowers arousal
Benzos aim to increase GABA
Highest concentration in cortex

116
Q

Neuromodulator

A

Neurotransmitters, but cause long-term changes in the postsynaptic cell

117
Q

Agonists

A

Increase effects of specific neurotransmitter

Ex. SSRI to treat depression, increase serotonin activity

118
Q

Antagonists

A

Decrease the effects of a specific neurotransmitter

Botox is an acetylcholine antagonist that decreases muscle activity

119
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Regulates hormones in the body

Hormones either have organizational or activational effects

120
Q

Organizational

Hormones

A

H-Y Antigen, androgens menarche

121
Q

H-Y Antigen

A

Presence during development causes fetus to be a male

122
Q

Androgens

A

Testosterones and estrogen during puberty causes genitals to mature and secondary sex characteristics to develop

123
Q

Menarche

A

Onset of the menstrual cycle

124
Q

Activational

Hormone

A

Luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Oxytocin

125
Q

Hormones in menstrual cycle

A

Estradiol, progesterone, LH, and FSH

126
Q

LH and FSH in females

A

Regulate the development of ovum and trigger ovulation

127
Q

LH and FSH in males

A

Regulate the development of sperm cells and the production of testosterone

128
Q

Oxytocin

A

Facilitate birth and breastfeeding

Also involved in pair bonding (child to mother or romantic partners)

129
Q

Other pituitary hormones

A

Vasopressin, thyroid stimulating hormone, Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

130
Q

Vasopressin

A

Regulates water levels in the body and regulate blood pressure

131
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone

A

Activates the thyroid

132
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Stress hormone that increases the production of androgens and cortisol

133
Q

Two distinct components

A

Non-Rem and REM sleep

134
Q

Stages of nonREM

A

Takes about a half an hour to pass through these states

135
Q

Stage 0 of non REM

A

Prelude, synchrony, a person becomes relaxed and drowsy and closes their eyes

136
Q

Synchrony

A

Low amp and fast frequency alpha waves

137
Q

Stage 1 of non REM

A

Eyes begin to roll, alpha waves disappear, loses responsiveness and experiences fleeting thoughts thoughts

138
Q

Theta waves

A

Lower in amplitude and slower in frequency, irregular during stage 1

139
Q

Stage 2 of non REM

A

Theta waves stage, sleep spindles, muscle tension, gradual decline in heart rate, respiration, and temperature

140
Q

Sleep Spindles

A

Fast frequency bursts of brain activity

141
Q

Stage 3 of non REM

A

30 mins after falling asleep. Fewer sleep spindles, high amplitude and low frequency delta waves

142
Q

Stage 4 of non REM

A

Delta waves 50% of time, heart rate, respiration, temp, blood flow to brain are decreased, growth hormones secreted
Groggy and confused

143
Q

REM

A 
20% spent in REM
Interspersed with non REM
Dreams, neural desynchrony, paradoxical sleep
15mins-1hr
Rebound Effect
144
Q

Neural desynchrony

A

Fast frequency, low- amplitude beta waves (REM and waking states)

145
Q

Paradoxical sleep

A

Physiological signs resemble waking, but muscle tone decreases to point of paralysis

146
Q

Rebound effect

A

When deprived of REM, compensate the next night

147
Q

Sleep cycles

A

90 minutes, 4-6 complete cycles

REM is half of sleep at birth, but decreases with growth

148
Q

Ethology

A

Animal behaviors, especially innate that occur in natural habitat

149
Q

Lorenz

A

Founder of Ethology as a distinct research area

Worked with imprinting, animal aggression, releasing stimuli, fixed action patterns

150
Q

Imprinting

A

Young attach to first moving object after birth (most often birds)
Display a following response, follow their first contact

151
Q

Animal Aggression

A

Certain aggressions were necessary for survival and innate

152
Q

Releasing stimuli

A

Lorenz, then Tinbergen
A releasing stimulus in one individual releases an automatic, instinctual chain of behaviors in another individual of the same species (fixed action patterns)

153
Q

Fixed action pattern

A

Uniform, performed by most members, more complex than reflexes, cannot be interrupted

154
Q

Tinbergen

A

Founder of modern ethology
Continued Lorenz work of releasing stimuli
Stickleback fish and herring gull chicks experiments

155
Q

Stickleback fish

A

Developed red coloration on their belly then fought each other
Tinb. concluded that redbelly was a releasing stimulus for fighting

156
Q

Herring gull chicks

A

Peck at the red spot of their parents bills. Red spot on the bill signals the chick to beck. Greater contrast of the red spot, more vigorously chicks would pack, even if unnatural color.

157
Q

Supernormal sign stimulus

A

Supernormal sign stimuli are artificial that exaggerate natural occuring sign stimulus, more effective than natural
Learned from herring gull exper.

158
Q

Karl von Frisch

A

Honeybee communication

Studied senses of fish

159
Q

Walter Cannon

A

Coined term fight or flight with animals

Proposed the idea of homeostasis, internal regulation of body to maintain equilibrium

160
Q

CNS Development

A

3 weeks cells begin to become specific only to nervous system

161
Q

Neural tube

A

Developed at 4 weeks, precursor to CNS

162
Q

Layers of cells

A

Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

163
Q

Ectoderm

A

Forms the nervous system

164
Q

Mesoderm and Endoderm

A

Connective tissues, endocrine system

165
Q

Direction of brain development

A

Bottom to top, back to front, basic to advanced

166
Q

Lateralization

A

DIvergence of roles of the two hemispheres

167
Q

Chromosomes

A

23 pairs located in nucleus of human cells
Carriers of genes/heredity
Organized into DNA molecules

168
Q

Genes

A

Basic unit of heredity

169
Q

Gamete

A

Sperm or ovum in humans

170
Q

Haploid

A

23 single chromosomes

171
Q

Diploid

A

23 pairs of chromosomes

All other cells

172
Q

Zygote

A

Fertilized egg cell, diploid

Bring genes together from each parent

173
Q

Genotype

A

All genetic material

Includes dominant and recessive alleles

174
Q

Phenotype

A

External characteristics, determined by genotype and environment

175
Q

Genetic drift

A

Natural selection for genetics

Genotypes are eliminated over time

176
Q

Fitness

A

Ability to reproduce and pass on genes

177
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

Over individual fitness
Animals will be invested in survival of not only their own genes but of their kin as well
Kin selection-> inclusive fitness
Explains why parents protect young and others

178
Q

Instinctual and innate behaviors

A

Present in all normal members of a species
In form throughout members
Independent of learning/experience
Ex. nesting in rodents

179
Q

Altruism

A 
Compatible with natural selection
Truly altruistic (non-kin) confuse ethologists, because incompatible with greatest survival
180
Q

Biological Clocks

A

Internal rhythms that keep an animal in sync with their environment

181
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

Endogenous rhythms that revolve around a 24 hour period

182
Q

Courting

A

Proceed reproduction

Attracting a mate and isolating a mate of same species

183
Q

Displacement activities (irrelevant behaviors)

A

Seem out of place and illogical, no particular survival function
Ex. scratching head when trying to decide something

184
Q

Estrus

A

Period in which a female is sexually receptive (usually for non human mammals)

185
Q

Inbreeding

A

Breeding within the same family
Evolutionary controls prevent this
Ex. Swans

186
Q

Mimicry

A

Evolved form of deception

Ex. Harmless species mimic poisonous snakes

187
Q

Instinctual drift

A

Animal replaces a trained/forced response with a natural response

188
Q

Pheromones

A

Chemicals detected by the vomeronasal organ

Communication between animals such as fear or sexual receptiveness

189
Q

Reproductive isolating mechanism

A

Prevent interbreeding between two different (closely related) species
4 forms: Behavioral, geographic, mechanical, by season

190
Q

Behavioral isolation

A

Only member of their species will respond to that type of courting

191
Q

Geographic isolation

A

Different species breed in different areas

192
Q

Mechanical isolation

A

Incompatible genital structures

193
Q

Isolation by Season

A

Potentially compatible mate during different seasons

194
Q

Sensitive/critical periods of learning

A

Ex. birds learning songs

Also plays a role in imprinting

195
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

Structural differences between sexes

196
Q

Sexual Selection

A

Greatest chance of being chosen as a mate, best courters, most attractive, or best fighters

197
Q

Selective breeding

A

Males intentionally paired to increase producing offspring with particular traits

198
Q

Comparative Psychology

A

Related to ethology

Study similarity and differences between different species

199
Q

Dance of the honeybees

A 
Karl von Frisch
Bees communicate through dance
Round-food is nearby
Waggle- food is far away
Dance also used to communicate potential nesting sites
200
Q

Navigation in bees

A

Bees are exemplary navigators Scouting bees use landmarks, sun, polarized light, and magnetic fields

201
Q

Hierarchy in bees

A

Bees form hierarchy, queen bees produce a chemical that suppresses ovaries in other bees so she only reproduces
Constantly tended to
Lays thousands of eggs in spring

202
Q

Mating in bees

A

Few male bees (drones) are produced

Only purpose is to mate with queen

203
Q

Flower selection

A

Bees can see ultraviolet light and flower coloration more complex
Honeybees could see certain markers on flowers (honeyguides) that people couldn’t

204
Q

Navigation

A

Certain animals adept at nav

If moved away, birds could still find places (true navigation) birds and bees are experts

205
Q

Cues to navigation

A

Atmospheric pressure, infrasound, magnetic sense, sun compass, star compass, polarized light, echolocations, hearing

206
Q

Atmospheric Pressure

A

Pigeons are sensitive to pressure changes with altitude

207
Q

Infrasound

A

Pigeons can hear low frequency sounds that human cannot

208
Q

Magnetic sense

A

Pigeons and bees can use earth’s magnetic forces as cues

209
Q

Sun Compass

A

Pigeons and bees can use sun as compass and compensate for daily movement

210
Q

Star compass

A

Bees use star patterns and movement

211
Q

Polarized light

A

When sun is obscured, Bees can use to infer sun position

212
Q

Echolocation

A

Usually replaces sight
Dolphins and Bats
High frequency sounds and locate objects by echo that bounces off

213
Q

Owls

A

Use hearing instead of echolocation

Asymmetrical ears so they can determine elevation as well

214
Q

Wolfgang Kohler

A

Gestalt psychologist

Experimented with chimps and insight in problem solving

215
Q

Chimpanzee experiment

Aha experience

A

Were able to create novel solutions to a problems instead of just trial and error. Aha-insight

216
Q

Harry Harlow

A

Monkey experiments with social isolation and maternal stimulation

217
Q

Social isolation experiment

A

Compares monkeys raised in isolation. Isolated males did not display normal sexual functioning and females lacked maternal behaviors

218
Q

Contact comfort

In monkeys

A

Separated at birth from mother. Surrogate wire monkey mother with feeding bottle, other surrogate terrycloth dummy with no bottle. Spent most of time with terry cloth dummy and only went to wire mother for feeding. Proved that infants attach through comfort not feeding

219
Q

Learning to learn

A

Monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired diff learning experiences

220
Q

Tyron

A

Selectively bred “maze bright” and “maze dull” to demonstrate heritability of behavior

221
Q

Cooper and Zubek

A

Selective breeding only helped when raised in normal conditions
Both bright and dull performed well when raised in an enriched environment and poorly when raised in an impoverished environment

222
Q

Thorndike Instrumental learning

A

Learning through trial, error, and accidental success. The animal acts on those successes

223
Q

Cats in puzzle boxes

A

Cat placed in box would accidently press escape door and be free
Then, they would activate lever right away

224
Q

Cross fostering experiments

A

Attempt to separate the effects of heredity and environment
Sibling mice placed in different situations, so later differences in aggression could be attributed to experience over genetics

225
Q

Erik Kandel

A

Studied sea slug aplysia because of few, large, easily identified nerve cellsLearned that learning and memory are shown by changes in synapses and neural pathways

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