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Vets6108* > Neurology physiology > Flashcards

Neurology physiology Flashcards

1
Q

state the development and maturation of the nervous system.

A
  • neural plate folds and the edge fuse to form neural plate
  • simple neuron tube folds to form 3 vesicles (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain) and elongated tube (eventual central central of the spinal cord)
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2
Q

how does the optic cup form?

A

Optic cup forms by the contact of optic vessels with ectoderm (future cornea)

  • optic vesicle and ectoderm make contacts and fold inwards, and they breaks off and form the lens vesicle

*neuroepithelium layer (neuro ectoderm) fold over caudally and form photoreceptor layers (optic cup)

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3
Q

Which nervous system are the optic cup myelinateing cells involved with?

A
  1. schwann cells (peripheral)
  2. oligodendrocytes
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4
Q

what does forebrain developed into during embryonic time?

A
  1. telencephalon
  2. diencephalon
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5
Q

What does forebrain develops into during child and adult?

A
  1. telencephalon: cerebrum
  2. diencephalon: diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)
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6
Q

what does midbrain developed into during embryonic time?

A
  1. mesencephalon
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7
Q

What does midbrain develops into during child and adult?

A

1.midbrain (part of brainstem)

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8
Q

what does hindbrain developed into during embryonic time?

A
  1. metencephalon
  2. myelencephalon
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9
Q

What does hindbrain develops into during child and adult?

A
  1. metencephalon: pons (part of brainstem) and cerebellum
  2. myelencephalon: medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)
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10
Q

describe the neurogenesis and migration

A
  • neural stem cells self-replicate
  • progeny proliferate and migrate to outer cortex in waves
  • radial glia guide neuron migration
  • neurons complete differentiation (to macroglia: astrocyte and oligodendrocyte)
  • glia follow and differentiate later
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11
Q

How does all the phases of neural development driven by?

A

all these processes are driven by growth factors and inhibitors and attracted gradients in the developing brain tissue.

  • neurite is the exploring pathway
  • once it’s connected to the target cells and making connections. it begins to become either the dendrite or axon.
  • axon carries the signal away
  • dendron carries the signal back to the cell body
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12
Q

State the formation of neural pathways.

A
  1. axons travel in bundles or tracts
    - most efficient way for the brain to develop and for them to be structured to parents disorganisation
    - the brain ends up in defailed organisation of different pathways travelling tgt and carry specific information.
  2. decussation (reasons)
    - vertebrate: crossing over of nerves to the brain in order to ensure the signals are still being reached from both side of the body even they have somatic twist.
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13
Q

State the pathway for sensory (esp via dorsal column).

A
  1. receive stimulus from periphery
  2. then send up to the brain
  3. sending signals up the spinal cord in bundles with synapse in the thalamus
  4. then info is transferred to the next neuron to the cortex
  • spinothalamic tract (pain pathway) do not decussate very much, they have very diffused pathway to the brain
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14
Q

where do motor neurons usually decussate?

A

they decussate in the brain as they travel away at the pyramid of the medulla before they cross down to the opposite side of the spinal cord.

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15
Q

state the maturation of neural pathway.

A
  1. myelination, synaptic tuning
  2. develop through experience. sensitive and critical periods (imprinting, stereoscopic vision, socialisation)
  3. cognitive capacity declines in old age
  4. connection of neuron is affected by environment.
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16
Q

what is the function of brainstem?

A

subconscious ANS control centres, motor centres and some of the nuclei of cranial nerve

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17
Q

state the broad function of spinal cord.

A
  • spinal nerves are paired, mixed afferent and efferent. (afferent = sensory: dorsal horn/ efferent = motor: ventral horn
  • grey matter contains cell bodies motor, sensory and interneurons
  • 2 functions of spinal cord:
    (i) transmission of information
    (ii) produces local reflexes (integrate local activity and cause adjustment)
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18
Q

state the broad function of medulla, pons and midbrain.

A
  • path for ascending and descending fibers
  • UMN nuclei: muscle tone, movement
  • CN exit and many CN nuclei
  • ANS control centres- homeostatic functions and reflexes
  • reticular formation- state of alertness
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19
Q

what is the function of medulla oblongata?

A
  • ANS control (cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor, digestion)
    -Exit CN
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20
Q

what is the function of pons?

A
  • motor and postural reflexes
  • relay from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
  • ANS control (respiratory, digestion with medulla)
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21
Q

what is the function of mid brain?

A
  • motor centers- red nucleus and substantia nigra influence motor activity, posture reflexes
  • projection of sensory and motor pathways
  • control centers for auditory and visaul reflexes
  • exit CN
  • postural reflexes
  • reticular formation- arousal
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22
Q

function of:
(i) vestibulocerebellum
(ii) spinocerebellum
(iii) cerebrocerebellum

A

(i) vestibulocerebellum: equilibrium and posture

(ii) spinocerebellum: control movement, skilled movement

(iii) cerebrocerebellum: motor learning and skilled movement

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23
Q

function of forebrain:
(i) thalamus
(ii) hypothalamus
(iii) cerebrum
(iv) basal ganglia

A

(i) thalamus: relay centre, performs primitive processing

(ii) hypothalamus:
-homeostasis, link higher cerebral, nervous and endocrine functions
-sits underneath the brain and connects to pituitary gland
- control of feeding reflexes, thirst, water balance, hungry and satiety, blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature

(iii) cerebrum: consciousness, voluntary movement, behaviour

(iv) basal glangia: outer cerebral cortex

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24
Q

State the function of
(i) neocrotes
(ii) allocortex
(iii) thalamocortical system

A

(i) neocortes: sensory, motor, memory, higher cognitive and problem solving area

(ii) allocortex (part of the limbic system): emotion, motivation, memory, spatial capability, olfaction, feeding
(iii) thalamocortical system: relay from nuclei in thalamus to regions of the cortex

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25
Q

what is the function of limbic system?

A
  • create motivation drives which lead to goal directed behaviour, link to autonomic responses

*the more cerebral cortex is developed, the less limbic structure is

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26
Q

what is the function of hippocampus?

A

memory, 3D navigation

27
Q

what is the function of amygdala?

A

fear, aggression, anger, social behaviour

28
Q

what is the function of rhinencephalon?

A

influence other limbic structures

29
Q

describe the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A
  • produced by ependymal cells of choroid plexus of 2x lateral, third and forth ventricles
  • circulates in subarachnoid space and spinal cord
  • pressure is kept constant by: venules subarachnoid space/ venous sinuses of the brain/ lymphatic vessels of the spinal nerve roots
30
Q

what is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • cushions and protects the CNS
  • provides buoyant
  • nourishes the CNS- glucose dependent, stabilises [K+], buffer
  • remove metabolites from the CNS
  • a pathway for pineal secretions to reach the pituitary gland
31
Q

what is the composition of CDF?

A

glucose, protein, chloride, sometimes lymphocyte

32
Q

What is the function of Reticular activating system (RAS)?

A

relays motor and sensory input and regulates consciousness, attention and sleep.

33
Q

what does brainstem readiness response leads to?

A
  • motor activation
  • neuroendocrine activation
  • fight and flight response (visceral activation)
  • consciousness activation
  • limbic system activation
  • sensory activation
34
Q

what are the 2 functional regoions of RAS?

A
  1. brainstem RAS: while awake or sleep
    - essential for excitability for the entire CNS (help regulate transition from sleep to awake)
  2. thalamic RAS: only while awake
    - pain perception and modulation
35
Q

what is EEG?

A
  • wave patterns form cortical neuron groups
  • sum small electrical potential differences
  • reflect changes in arousal, attention via RAS
36
Q

What are the normal EEG patterns?

A
  1. beta rhythm
    - alert: faster irregular oscillations
    - REM sleep
  2. alpha rhythm
    - awake but relaxed: sloer and larger irregular oscillations
  3. theta rhythm
    - hippocampal, light sleep, poised
  4. delta rhythm
    - deep sleep, but not dreams, slow large waves
37
Q

what’s the function of pons and hypothalamus in sleep?

A

hypothalamus: enforces sleep

pons: promotes REM

38
Q

what coordinate the pattern of sleep?

A

orexin

39
Q

REM sleep

A
  • beta waves (small fast waves)
  • RAS, sympathetic activation
  • higher threshold for arousal
  • dreams
  • muscle tone inhibited - eye muscles, occasional skeletal muscle twitching
  • HR, RR, Tmep, BP all fluctuate
40
Q

description of the mentation of animal.

A
  1. bright alert responsive
  2. quiet alert responsive
41
Q

what does hard wired emotion system include?

A
  1. seeking
  2. fear
  3. rage
  4. panic
42
Q

how does limbic system affect emotion system?

A
  • limbic system interacts with the autonomic nervous system with the hypothalamus
  • limbic system helps create emotion, motivation that affects the cortex and affects the autonomic nervous system
43
Q

how does making decision relate to the brain?

A
  • limbic system create motivational drives (relate to physiological needs/ drives goal directed behaviour/ release hormone, ANS and forms memories)
  • moderated by the cortex
44
Q

short term memories

A

repeated electrical synaptic activities

45
Q

long term memories

A

synaptic and chemical; loops through hippocampus and cerebral cortex

46
Q

formation of memories

A
  • short term integrated into long term memory
  • must accessible for memory storage
  • repeated practice strengthens and potentiates synapse
  • operate via numerous loops to cortical regions
    memories are just strengthening synapses connection
47
Q

what are the simple forms of learning?

A
  • imprinting
  • habituation
  • sensitisation
48
Q

what controls the reflexes that maintain posture and balance?

A

integrated by spinal cord

input from medulla/pons

49
Q

what controls the rhythmic, patterned movements for locomotion?

A

directed by spinal cord and brainstem

coordinated by cerebellum (monitoring and modulating)

50
Q

what controls the voluntary movement?

A

overseen by motor cortex, basal ganglia information converges onto motor neurons (MN)

51
Q

what are the 3 main motor components?

A
  1. voluntary movement
    - flexors
    - overseeing by higher centres
    - movements are intentional and requir the animal to form conscious, learned skill movements
    - usually involve the distal flexes (end of fore and hindlimbs)
  2. postural support
    - extensor antigravity posture
    - the final common pathway = motor neuron
  3. 2-neuron pathway
    - upper motor neuron (UMN)
    - Lower motor neuron (LMN)
52
Q

Describe the 2 white matter tracts that the UMN from cortex/brainstem project down the SC.

A

*Upper motor neuron connects brain to LMN

  1. Pyramidal tracts
    - fine touch (more important in human and primate)
    - travel through the pyramids of the medulla- important for voluntary movements
  2. Extrapyramidal tracts
    - more important in animal
    - go through the medulla but not through the pyramids
    - involve in larger muscle groups, posture, balance and smoothing
53
Q

describe pyramidal tracts.

A
  • initiate voluntary movement
  • fine motor skills
  • the pyramidal tracts include both:
    1. the cortico-bular from cerebral motor cortex to the brainstem.
    >for impulses from the brain to cranial nerves. these nerves control the muscles of the face and neck and are involved in facial expression, mastication, swallowing and other motor functions.
  1. the cortico-spinal tract from cerebral motor cortex to spinal cord
    > for voluntary movement of the body
54
Q

describe extrapyramidal tracts.

A
  • involuntary motor control, modulation and regulation (indirect control) of lower motor neurons in the spinal cord for appropriate reflexes, locomotion, ocmplex movements, and postural control.
  • modulated by cerebellum, the vestibular nuclei, and different sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.
55
Q

what are the 4 sub-categories in the extrapyramidal tracts in the spinal cord?

A
  1. reticulospinal (alertness, proximal muscle)
    - reticular formation to SC LMN
    -proximal extensor tone
  2. vestibulospinal (posture)
    - vestibular nuclei to alpha and gamma LMN in SC
    - muscle tone appropriate to posture
  3. tectospinal
    - visual tectum to rostral SC LMN
    - reflex coordination of movements of head and eye
  4. rubrospinal
    - red nucleus to SC, LMN supplying distal, flex muscles
    - voluntary control of movement in animals
56
Q

what are the 3 main postural reflexes of vestibular reflexes?

A
  1. vestibulo-ocular reflex: Nystagmus
    -
  2. vestibular placing reflex
    - cover the patient’s eyes and pick the animal up > when their paws reach the table, they should immediately place the limb forward to rest the paw on the table.
  3. the righting reflex
    - reflex that correct the orientation of the body when it is taken out of its normal upright position
57
Q

what is the function organisation of ANS?

A
  1. sympathetic (thoracolumbar) and parasympathetic (craniosacral) arms
    - general visceral efferent system
    - central and peripheral components
    - innervate the same muscle but with opposite effects
    - enteric nervous system
58
Q

describe sympathetic nervous system

A
  1. pre-ganglionic: myelinated short course (acetylcholine)
  2. post-ganglionic: unmyelinated long course, branching. synapses in collateral ganglias (noradrenaline)
  3. sympathetic receptors
    - Adrenergic receptors:
    (i) alpha 1: common; excite
    (ii) alpha 2: gut, CNS, vessels, presynaptic; inhibit
    (iii) beta 1- heart; excite
    (iv) beta 2- bronchiole, skeletal m arterioles; inhibit
59
Q

describe parasympathetic nervous system.

A
  1. pre-ganglionic: myelinated, long course (acetylcholine)
  2. post-ganglionic: unmyelinated short course, direct. (acetylcholine)
  3. parasympathetic receptors
    - cholinnergic receptors (excited by acetylcholine): fast, exctitory
    - muscarinic receptors (excited by acetylcholine): slower, excite or inhibit, block by atropine
60
Q

describe the sensory pathways- usually 3 neuron chains

A
  1. 1st order afferent travels into CNS
    - synapses in spinal cor (spinothalamic) or medulla (medial lemniscus)
    - 2nd neuron often crosses sides (decussates)
  2. 2nd order afferent synapses with 3rd order afferent, usually in thalamus
  3. 3rd order afferent conveys the message to higher somatosensory cortex for full perception
61
Q

how do somatic receptor produce action potential from the stimuli?

A
  • resting potential > generator potential (graded amplitude proportional to strength) > action potentials
  • generator potential need to reach threshold to generate action potential (so some generator potential might not be able to reach action potential)
62
Q

how to treat pain?

A
  1. inhibit the activation of nociceptors (by giving pain relief)
  2. block conduction of impulses in nociceptors
  3. block the transmission of pain pathways in the CNS
  4. Activate the body’s own pain modulating system - oxytocin
63
Q
A

Vets6108* (10 decks)

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