Neurological and Endocrine Disorders Flashcards
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
Also known as a stroke.
Cause: Sudden interruption of blood flow to the brain.
Risk Factors:
Hypertension (leading risk factor).
Atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries).
Heart disease.
Diabetes.
Cigarette smoking.
Heavy alcohol consumption.
Obesity.
Older age.
Male gender.
African American race.
Family history of stroke.
Ischemic Stroke
Cause: Blockage in a cerebral artery.
Types:
Thrombotic Stroke: Blood clot forms in brain artery.
Embolic Stroke: Clot travels from elsewhere to brain.
Transient Ischemic Stroke (TIA):
Temporary blockage, warning sign of future stroke.
Hemorrhagic Stroke
Cause: Bleeding in cerebral artery.
Types:
Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Bleeding within brain.
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: Bleeding around brain.
Middle Cerebral Artery
Symptoms:
Contralateral sensory loss.
Hemiparesis/hemiplegia.
Contralateral homonymous hemianopsia.
Dysarthria, aphasia/apraxia.
Posterior Cerebral Artery
Symptoms:
Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis.
Visual impairment/homonymous hemianopsia.
Dysarthria, nausea, vomiting.
Memory loss.
Anterior Cerebral Artery
Symptoms:
Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (leg).
Impaired insight, judgment.
Mutism, apathy, confusion.
Urinary incontinence.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Types: Can be open or closed.
Open Head Injury: Consequences depend on location and severity of injury.
Closed Head Injury: Causes more widespread damage; may result in loss of consciousness.
Symptoms After Regaining Consciousness:
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Emotional: Mood swings, irritability.
Cognitive: Anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
Behavioral: Changes in personality, impulsivity.
Physical: Headaches, dizziness, fatigue.
Amnesia
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Anterograde amnesia: Difficulty forming new memories.
Retrograde amnesia: Loss of recent memories.
Prognosis
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Most recovery occurs in the first three months, with additional improvement in the first year.
Some symptoms may persist indefinitely, especially in moderate to severe injuries.
Motor Disorders
Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease are caused by degeneration of cells in the motor areas of the brain.
Huntington’s Disease
Neurodegenerative disorder affecting affective, cognitive, and motor functions.
Cause: Autosomal dominant gene; 50% chance of inheritance.
Onset: Typically between 30 and 50 years old.
Pathology: Abnormalities in basal ganglia; altered GABA and glutamate levels.
Symptoms:
Affective: Depression, mood swings.
Cognitive: Short-term memory loss, impaired concentration.
Motor: Clumsiness, involuntary movements (athetosis, chorea).
Progression: Worsening affective, cognitive, and motor symptoms over time.
Later Stages: Severe movement disorders, difficulty speaking and swallowing.
Parkinson’s Disease
Neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting motor functions.
Cause: Interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
Pathology: Loss of dopamine-producing cells in substantia nigra and basal ganglia.
Other Implications: Excessive glutamate activity, degeneration of norepinephrine neurons.
Symptoms:
Tremor (especially in hands), impaired balance, muscle rigidity,
bradykinesia.
Non-motor symptoms: Depression, cognitive deficits, sleep
disturbances.
Treatment: No cure; symptoms managed with L-dopa to increase dopamine levels.
Depression: Common, precedes motor symptoms in some cases.
Neurocognitive Disorder: May develop in later stages.
Seizure Disorders
Seizure disorders are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
Focal Onset Seizures
Begin in localized area in one cerebral hemisphere, may spread.
Types:
Focal Onset Aware Seizures (Simple Partial Seizures):
No loss of consciousness.
Focal Onset Impaired Awareness Seizures (Complex Partial Seizures):
Change in consciousness; may start with aura.
Temporal Lobe Seizures
Common, may start with aura (strange taste/odor, intense fear, etc.).
Sweating, dilated pupils, lip-smacking, trouble speaking.
Triggers: Genetic factors, brain injury, tumors, infections, stress.
Frontal Lobe Seizures
Often during sleep, short duration.
Repetitive movements, abnormal posturing, autonomic symptoms.
Parietal Lobe Seizures
Tingling, numbness, abnormal sensations.
Feelings of movement, body image distortions.
Occipital Lobe Seizures
Eye movements, visual hallucinations, visual impairment.
Generalized Onset Motor Seizures:
Also known as tonic-clonic seizures or grand mal seizures.
Involve both hemispheres of the brain.
Cause a change in consciousness.
Tonic Phase
Stiffening of muscles in the face and limbs.
Clonic Phase
Jerky rhythmic movements in the arms and legs.
Post-seizure symptoms may include depression, confusion, or fatigue with no memory of the event.
Generalized Onset Non-Motor Seizures
Also known as absence seizures or petit mal seizures.
Brief loss of consciousness.
Characterized by a blank or absent stare.
Some may have upward eye movements and eyelid fluttering
Migraine Headaches
Description:
Intense, throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head.
May be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light or other sensory stimuli.
Migraine Headaches Types
Migraine Headaches with Aura (Classic Migraines).
Migraine Headaches without Aura (Common Migraines).
Triggers - Migraine Headaches
Emotional stress, abrupt weather changes, alcohol, certain foods, skipping meals, etc.
Treatment - Migraine Headaches
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ergot alkaloids, SSRIs, SSRI agonists, beta blockers.
Thermal biofeedback and autogenic training.
Hypertension - Types:
Primary Hypertension (Essential Hypertension):
Cause unknown, often asymptomatic.
Risk factors include obesity, tobacco use, excessive salt intake, stress, etc.
Treatment includes lifestyle changes and medication.
Secondary Hypertension:
Due to a known disease.
Hypertension - Treatment
Medication such as diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors.
Lifestyle changes, including biofeedback or relaxation training.
Endocrine Disorders
Thyroid Disorders:
Hyperthyroidism:
Hypothyroidism:
Hyperthyroidism
Symptoms: Increased metabolism, elevated body temperature, heat intolerance, increased appetite with weight loss, etc.
Hypothyroidism
Symptoms: Decreased metabolism, weight gain, slowed heart rate, cold intolerance, depression, etc.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Function: Regulates water excretion in urine.
Central Diabetes Insipidus:
Cause: Low levels of ADH due to tumor, infection, stroke, pituitary surgery, etc.
Symptoms: Frequent and excessive urination, extreme thirst, dehydration, constipation, weight loss, low blood pressure.
Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus: Kidneys fail to respond to ADH
Pancreas and Blood Glucose Balance
Insulin: Regulates blood glucose levels.
Hypoglycemia:
Cause: Excess insulin, skipping meals, excessive alcohol consumption, liver disorders, adrenal and pituitary gland disorders.
Symptoms: Nervousness, shaking, sweating, hunger, dizziness, confusion, weakness, sleepiness, blurred vision, tingling, headaches, irregular heartbeat, seizures, loss of consciousness.
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 Diabetes:
Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells.
Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, viral infections.
Type 2 Diabetes:
Insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance.
Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, age, certain racial/ethnic groups.
Symptoms of Diabetes
Extreme hunger and thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, numbness or tingling in hands or feet, frequent infections.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Neurological Diagnostic Tests
Purpose: Measures brain’s electrical activity.
Procedure: Small electrodes placed on scalp record brain activity.
Output: Activity shown as wavy lines on graph paper or computer screen.
Applications
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Identify changes in brain activity in response to stimuli.
Aid in diagnosis of seizure disorders, brain injuries, tumors, and sleep disorders.
Confirm brain death.
NEBA
Electroencephalography (EEG)
FDA-approved tool to diagnose ADHD in 6 to 17-year-olds by assessing theta and beta brain wave ratio.
Limitation
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Indicates activity in brain areas, not single neurons.
Microelectrode Techniques
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Measure single neuron activity, primarily used in research and movement disorder surgeries.
Structural Techniques
Purpose: Identify structural changes in the brain.
Structural Techniques - Types
Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scan): Provides rapid images using X-rays.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Produces detailed 3D images without ionizing radiation.
Structural Techniques - Advantages
CT Scan: Cost-effective, faster, does not require long periods of patient immobility.
MRI: Detailed images, detects microhemorrhages, contusions, and gliosis without radiation.
Functional Techniques - Purpose
Assess brain structure and activity.
Types - Functional Techniques
Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Uses radiotracers to measure brain activity.
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): Measures brain activity with radiotracers.
Functional MRI (fMRI): Utilizes magnetic fields and radio waves.
Applications - Functional Techniques
PET and SPECT: Measure regional cerebral blood flow, blood volume, oxygen consumption, or glucose metabolism.
fMRI: Provides detailed images of brain activity.
