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Neurological Conditions > Neuroanatomy > Flashcards

Neuroanatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What does the CNS include?

A

Brain, cerebellum, brain stem, and

spinal cord

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2
Q

What does the PNS include, and how is it divided?

A

– All the components outside the
cranium and spinal cord
– Divided into Somatic Nervous System
and Autonomic Nervous System

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3
Q

What is the Nervous System?

A

Highly organized communication system

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4
Q

What do cells do?

A

Cells receive, transmit, analyze, and
communicate information throughout the
body

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5
Q

What are the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord composed of?

A

composed of two basic types of nerves –

neurons and neuroglia

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6
Q

What are the types of neurons?

A

afferent (sensory), interneurons, efferent (motor)

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7
Q

What are afferent neurons?

A

(sensory) responsible for receiving

sensory input from the PNS and transporting it to the CNS

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8
Q

What are interneurons?

A

connect neurons to other neurons and
organize information received from different sources for
later interpretation

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9
Q

What are efferent neurons?

A

(motor) transmit information to the

extremities to signal muscles to produce movement

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10
Q

What are neuroglia?

A

non-neuronal supporting cells that

provide critical services to the neurons

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11
Q

What are the types of neuroglia?

A

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia (phagocytes)

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12
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

provide vascular link to neurons, contribute to
the metabolism of CNS, and regulate extracellular
concentration of neurotransmitters

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13
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A

wrap myelin sheaths around axons in
the white matter and produce satellite cells in the gray
matter (participate in ion exchange between neurons)

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14
Q

What are microglia?

A

(phagocytes) engulf and digest pathogens and

assist in nervous system repair after injury

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15
Q

What does a neuron consist of?

A

cell body (gray matter), dendrites, axon (message sending component)

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16
Q

What is a cell body?

A

(gray matter) synthesizes
proteins, transmits electrochemical
impulses, and repairs cells

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17
Q

What are dendrites?

A

receives information and
transfers it to the cell body for
processing

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18
Q

What are axons?

A

(message sending component)
transmits impulses from cell body to
target cells

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19
Q

What are synapses?

A

connections between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another; allow different parts of the nervous system to communicate and influence each other

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20
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

chemicals that transmit

information across the synapse

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21
Q

What do pharmaceuticals do to neurotransmitter activity?

A

facilitate or inhibit

neurotransmitter activity

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22
Q

What are common neurotransmitters?

A

acetylcholine, glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory), dopamine, norepinephrine (ANS)

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23
Q

What is acetylcholine?

A

used by all neurons that synapse with
muscle fibers, regulates heart rate and other autonomic
functions

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24
Q

What is glutamate?

A

(excitatory) facilitates neuronal change during

development and destroys neurons after CNS injury

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25
Q

What is GABA?

A

(inhibitory) exerts influence over interneurons in

the spinal cord

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26
Q

What is dopamine?

A

influences motor activity, motivation, and

cognition

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27
Q

What is norepinephrine?

A

(ANS) produces the “flight or fight

response” to stress

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28
Q

What do axons do?

A

Conducts processed information to other neurons, muscle

cells, or glands

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29
Q

Are axons myelinated?

A

Axons can be myelinated (insulated) or unmyelinated

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30
Q

Is the myelin sheath continuous?

A

Myelin sheath is not continuous separated by the Nodes of

Ranvier

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31
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

Electrical impulses jump from one node to the next increasing
the velocity of the impulse

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32
Q

What is white matter composed of?

A

composed of axons that carry
information away from cell bodies and has high
concentrations of myelin (white appearance)

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33
Q

Where is white matter found?

A

found in the brain and spinal cord

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34
Q

What does gray matter contain?

A

contain large number of nerve cell

bodies and dendrites (gray appearance)

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35
Q

Where is gray matter?

A

covers the entire surface of the
cerebrum (cerebral cortex) and is also present in the
spinal cord

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36
Q

Where does sensory information enter the CNS?

A

through the

spinal cord or cranial nerves

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37
Q

What forms fiber tracts?

A

Myelinated axons are bundled together within the

CNS to form fiber tracts

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38
Q

Where does information travel?

A

Information travels in these fiber tracts from the

sensory receptor to the cortex for interpretation

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39
Q

How are fiber tracts designated?

A

point of origin

and their point of termination (lateral spinothalamic)

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40
Q

What are the brain and spinal cord protected by?

A

protected by the skull and
spine and is covered by three layers of membranes
(meninges)

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41
Q

What is the dura mater?

A

(outer most layer) thick, fibrous connective

tissue that adheres to the skull

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42
Q

What is the arachnoid?

A

(middle layer)

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43
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

(inner most layer) adheres to the brain and

contains the cerebral circulation

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44
Q

Where are epidural and subdural space?

A

epidural space is between the dura matter and the skull; Subdural space is between the dura matter and arachnoid

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45
Q

Where does cerebral spinal fluid bathe and circulate?

A

bathes and circulates within the

subarachnoid space

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46
Q

How is the cerebrum divided?

A

4 lobes: frontal (motor), parietal (sensory), temporal (auditory), occipital (visual)

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47
Q

What does the frontal lobe do?

A

(primary motor cortex) is responsible for
voluntary complex motor activities, cognitive
functions (judgment, attention, awareness,
abstract thinking, mood, and aggression), and
speech

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48
Q

What does the parietal lobe do?

A

(primary sensory cortex) is responsible
for processing sensory information and applying
meaning to it, and short-term memory functions

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49
Q

What does the temporal lobe do?

A

(primary auditory cortex) is responsible
for hearing, comprehension of the spoken
language, visual perception, musical
discrimination, and long-term memory

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50
Q

What does the occipital lobe do?

A

(primary visual cortex) is responsible for
organization, integration, and interpretation of
visual information

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51
Q

What is the association cortex and what does it do?

A

– Areas in the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
that horizontally link different parts of the cortex
– Other functions include personality, memory,
intelligence, and emotions

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52
Q

Where are the motor areas located?

A

frontal lobe

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53
Q

What is the primary motor cortex?

A

responsible for contralateral

voluntary control of upper extremities and face

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54
Q

What is the premotor area?

A

controls muscles of trunk and

postural adjustments

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55
Q

What is the supplementary motor area?

A

controls initiation of
movement, orientation of the eyes and head, and
bilateral sequential movements

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56
Q

How is the cerebrum divided?

A

left and right hemispheres

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57
Q

Which hemisphere is responsible for language?

A

dominant hemisphere (95% left side)

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58
Q

What is the left hemisphere for?

A

verbal or analytic side

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59
Q

What is the right hemisphere for?

A

non-verbal and artistic side

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60
Q

Can the hemispheres do the same actions?

A

Even though the hemispheres have discrete
functional capabilities, they perform many of the
same actions

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61
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

connects right and left
hemispheres and allows constant communication
between the two

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62
Q

What is the internal capsule and what could a lesion here cause?

A

all descending fibers leaving the
motor area of the frontal lobe pass through here (a
lesion in this area can cause contralateral loss of
voluntary movement and conscious ability to
perceive tactile and proprioceptive input)

63
Q

What is the diencephalon?

A

major sensory tracts, and visual and

auditory pathways synapse

64
Q

What does the diencephalon include?

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

65
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

receives all sensory impulses (except smell),
including pain and peripheral numbness, and receives
motor information from the basal ganglia and cerebellum
channeling this information to appropriate regions of the
cortex for interpretation

66
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

regulates homeostasis, hunger, thirst,
digestion, body temperature, blood pressure, sexual
activity, sleep-wake cycles, and the pituitary gland and its
release of hormones (endocrine system and ANS)

67
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

made up of the caudate, putamen,
globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic
nuclei

68
Q

What does the basal ganglia influence?

A

Influences motor planning, regulates posture, muscle tone,
controls volitional and automatic movements, and is
involved in cognitive functions

69
Q

What does the limbic system do?

A

guides emotions that regulate
behavior, controls memory, pain, pleasure, rage,
affection, sexual interest, fear, and sorrow

70
Q

What does the cerebellum control?

A

Controls balance and complex muscular movements

71
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Located below occipital lobe/posterior to brain stem

72
Q

How is the cerebellum divided?

A

two hemispheres

73
Q

What is the cerebellum responsible for?

A

integration, coordination, and

execution of multi-joint movements

74
Q

What does the cerebellum regulate?

A

initiation, timing, sequencing, and force

generation of muscle contractions

75
Q

What does the brain stem control?

A

functions related to sensation, cranial

nerves, heart rate, and respiration

76
Q

What is the brain stem divided into?

A

midbrain, pons, medulla

77
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

connects diencephalon to the pons, is a relay
station for tracts between cerebrum and the spinal cord or
cerebellum, and houses reflex centers for visual, auditory
and tactile responses

78
Q

What is the pons?

A

regulates breathing rate, contains reflex centers for
orientation of the head in response to visual and auditory
stimulation, and carry motor and sensory information to
and from the face (cranial nerves)

79
Q

What is the medulla?

A

is extension of the spinal cord, contains fiber
tracts that run through the spinal cord, reflex centers for
the heart and respiratory rate, vomiting, sneezing, and
swallowing

80
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

maintains and adjusts level of
arousal including sleep-wake cycles, facilitates
voluntary and autonomic motor responses for selfregulation,
homeostatic functions and modulates
muscle tone throughout the body

81
Q

What do brain cells depend on?

A

uninterrupted supply of blood

for glucose and oxygen

82
Q

Where do all arteries rise from?

A

All arteries to the brain rise from the aortic arch

83
Q

What are carotid arteries responsible for?

A

supplying the

bulk of the cerebrum circulation

84
Q

What do middle and anterior cerebral arteries make up?

A

anterior circulation to the brain

85
Q

What is the largest cerebral artery and most often occluded?

A

Middle cerebral artery

86
Q

What is posterior circulation made up of?

A

two vertebral arteries

87
Q

What do anterior and posterior communicating arteries do?

A

interconnect at the base of the brain (circle of Willis)
and provide a protective mechanism to the
structures of the brain

88
Q

What happens when there isn’t adequate circulation?

A

death will occur within minutes and the cells

deprived of oxygen can not regenerate

89
Q

When would changes to the neurons happen?

A

Changes in the neurons are not evident for 12-24
hours but at 24-36 hours the damaged area becomes
soft and edematous

90
Q

Can damaged neurons recover?

A

The damaged neurons will not be replaced and the

original function of the area will be lost

91
Q

What happens with nearby undamaged axons?

A

Nearby undamaged axons demonstrate collateral
sprouting in 4-5 days after injury increasing input to
other nearby neurons

92
Q

What does the spinal cord do?

A

Coordinates sensory information, motor information
and movement patterns between the brain and
peripheral nerves

93
Q

What is integrated in the spinal cord?

A

reflexes

94
Q

How is the spinal cord connected to the brain stem?

A

Direct continuation of the brain stem

95
Q

Where does the spinal cord end?

A

Direct continuation of the brain stem

96
Q

What is the spinal cord composed of?

A

Ends around the first or second lumbar vertebra then

becomes the cauda equina

97
Q

What are the dorsal and ventral horn responsible for?

A

• Upper portion (dorsal horn) is responsible for
transmitting sensory stimulus
• Lower portion (ventral horn) is responsible for
transmitting motor impulses

98
Q

What is the lateral horn responsible for?

A

From T1-L2 (lateral horn) is responsible for

processing autonomic information

99
Q

What does the periphery (white matter) do?

A

has fiber tracts that carry
sensory (ascending) and motor (descending)
impulses to various areas within the nervous system

100
Q

What are dorsal columns?

A

carry information about proprioception,

vibration, two-point discrimination, and deep touch

101
Q

What are ventral columns?

A

carry information about light touch and

pressure sensations

102
Q

What is the Corticospinal tract?

A

primary motor pathway and

controls skilled movements of the extremities

103
Q

What is Babinski sign?

A

An indicator of damage to the corticospinal tract is
a positive Babinski sign (great toe extends and
other toes splay)

104
Q

What other descending tracts affect muscle tone?

A

rubrospinal, lat/med vestibulospinal, lat/med reticulospinal, tectospinal

105
Q

What does the rubrospinal do?

A

facilitates flexor motor neurons and
inhibits extensor motor neurons (mainly proximal
upper extremity muscles) – assist in correction of
movement errors

106
Q

What does the lateral vestibulospinal do?

A

assists in postural adjustments

through facilitation of proximal extensor muscles

107
Q

What does the medial vestibulospinal do?

A

regulates muscle tone in the neck

and upper back

108
Q

What does the lateral reticulospinal do?

A

facilitates flexors and inhibits

extensor muscle activity

109
Q

What does the medial reticulospinal do?

A

facilitates extensors and inhibits

flexor muscle activity

110
Q

What does the tectospinal do?

A

provides orientation of the head toward a

sound or moving object

111
Q

What does the PNS consist of?

A

Consists of nerves leading to and from the CNS
(including the cranial nerves) connecting the CNS
with the rest of the body through sensory and motor
impulses

112
Q

What do signs and symptoms of PNS involvement relate to?

A

relate to

motor and sensory systems as well as the ANS

113
Q

What are primary functions of the cranial nerves?

A

eye
movements, smell, face and tongue sensation, and
innervations to the SCM and trapezius muscles

114
Q

What are the spinal nerves?

A

8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5

lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal

115
Q

Where do the spinal nerves exit?

A

C1 to C7 exit above the corresponding vertebrae (C8 above
T1) and from T1 on down exit below the corresponding
vertebrae

116
Q

Are the spinal nerves sensory or motor?

A

they can be both

117
Q

What is a dermatome?

A

region of skin innervated by a sensory

nerve from an individual spinal nerve

118
Q

What is a myotome?

A

group of muscles innervated by an

individual spinal nerve

119
Q

What is the cervical plexus?

A

spinal nerves C1-C4 and primarily

innervates the neck muscles

120
Q

What is the brachial plexus?

A

spinal nerves C5-T1 and innervates

the majority of the upper extremities

121
Q

What is the lumbar plexus?

A

spinal nerves L1-L4 and along with

the sacral plexus, innervates the lower extremities

122
Q

What is the sacral plexus?

A

spinal nerves L4-S3 and innervates the

lower extremities

123
Q

Are peripheral nerves motor or sensory?

A

they can be both

124
Q

What does the ANS do?

A

Regulates circulation, respiration, digestion,
metabolism, secretion, body temperature, and
reproduction

125
Q

What is the ANS controlled by?

A

hypothalamus and the brain stem

126
Q

How is the ANS separated?

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

127
Q

What does the sympathetic division do?

A

(“fight or flight”) - helps prepare to cope with

stimulus by maintaining optimal blood supply

128
Q

What does the parasympathetic division do?

A

maintains vital bodily functions or

homeostasis

129
Q

How is autoregulation achieved?

A

achieved by integrating information
from peripheral afferents with information from
receptors in the CNS

130
Q

What are some causes of peripheral nerve injuries?

A

stretching, laceration, traction,

compression, disease, chemical toxicity, nutritional deficiency

131
Q

What happens if the cell body is destroyed?

A

• If the cell body is destroyed: regeneration is not possible
• If damage is not too severe and only to the axon:
regeneration is possible

132
Q

What happens to nonviable tissue?

A

it must be removed

133
Q

What is the rate of axonal sprouting from the proximal end?

A

<10 mm per day depending on the size and location of the

nerve fiber

134
Q

Does surgical repair of transected nerve endure full functional recovery?

A

Surgical repair of transected nerve does not ensure full

functional recovery

135
Q

Why must the axon re-innervate the appropriate muscle?

A

Axon must re-innervate the appropriate muscle or axonal

sprouting will degenerate

136
Q

What does the rate of recovery depend on?

A

Rate of recovery depends on patient age and the distance the

nerve needs to grow (1-12 weeks)

137
Q

What are the changes that follow the severance of an axon?

A 
1) The axon terminal degenerates
to closest node of Ranvier
2) Myelin breaks down and forms
debris
3) The cell body undergoes
metabolic changes
4) Subsequently, presynaptic
terminals retract from the
dying cell body
5) Postsynaptic cells degenerate
138
Q

What is an upper motor neuron lesion?

A

damage to the corticospinal
tract anywhere from the frontal lobe to the end in
the spinal cord

139
Q

What are clinical signs of an upper motor neuron lesion?

A

spasticity, hyperreflexia, positive

Babinski sign, and possible clonus

140
Q

What is a lower motor neuron lesion?

A

damage to the anterior horn
cell, motor nerve cells of brain stem, spinal root or
spinal nerve

141
Q

What are clinical signs of a lower motor neuron lesion?

A

flaccidity, marked atrophy, muscle

fasciculation, and hyporeflexia

142
Q

What is Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease?

A 
Also known as
hereditary motor &amp;
sensory neuropathy
or peroneal muscular
atrophy (1 in 2500 people)
143
Q

How common is CTS?

A

Most common
entrapment
neuropathy in
the U.S. (3.5 in 1000)

144
Q

What are neuromusculoskeletal causes of CTS?

A 
– Amyloidosis
– Anatomic sequelae of medical or
surgical procedures
– Basal joint (thumb) arthritis
– Cervical disk lesions
– Cervical spondylosis
– Congenital anatomic differences
– Cumulative trauma disorders
– Peripheral neuropathy
– Repetitive strain injury
– Poor posture (may be associated
with TOS)
– Wrist trauma
– Tendonitis
– Trigger points
– TOS
145
Q

What are systemic causes of CTS?

A 
‒ Alcohol
‒ Arthritis
‒ Leukemia
‒ Liver disease
‒ Medications
‒ Nonsteroidal
‒ Oral contraceptives
‒ Stains
‒ Alendronate
‒ Multiple myeloma
‒ Obesity
146
Q

What are endocrine causes of CTS?

A 
– Acromegaly
– Diabetes mellitus
– Hormonal imbalance
– Hyperparathyroidism (Grave’s
Disease)
– Hypocalcemia
– Hypothyroidism
– Gout
147
Q

What are infectious disease causes of CTS?

A 
‒ Atypical mycobacterium
‒ Rubella
‒ Fungal infections
• Histoplasmosis
• Sporotrichosis
148
Q

What is Bell’s palsy?

A

a common
condition in which the
facial nerve is unilaterally
affected (20 in 100000)

149
Q

What is TOS?

A 
TOS is an entrapment
syndrome caused by
pressure from
structures in the
thoracic outlet on fibers
of the brachial plexus at
some point between
the interscalene triangle
&amp; the inferior border of
the axilla
150
Q

What is diabetic neuropathy?

A

– Typically occurs in distal, symmetrical patterns
– Classified as rapidly reversible, generalized symmetric
polyneuropathies, or focal neuropathies

151
Q

What is alcoholic neuropathy caused by?

A

Due to total lifetime accumulation of ethanol

152
Q

What does chronic renal failure cause?

A

– Lower extremities more commonly affected

– Cognitive decline

153
Q

What does anemia cause?

A

– Difficulty with handwriting

– Loss of balance and proprioception

154
Q

What are some infections/inflammations that affects the nervous system?

A

• Guillain-Barre Syndrome
• Post-polio syndrome/post-polio muscular atrophy
• Herpes zoster/post-herpetic neuralgia (shingles)
• Trigeminal neuralgia (5th cranial nerve)
• Human immunodeficiency virus advanced disease
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
• Vasculitis

Neurological Conditions (5 decks)

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