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Anatomy > Neuroanatomy > Flashcards

Neuroanatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What fundamental functions does our nervous system control, give 4 examples

A
  • Consciousness
  • Sleep-wake cycles
    -Speech and Language
    -Judgement
    -Reasoning
    -Personality
    -Self-awareness
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2
Q

What is the nervous system made up of

A

-Brain
-Spinal cord
- nerves

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3
Q

What protects the spinal cord

A

Vertebral column

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4
Q

What protects the brain

A

Skull

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5
Q

What is a neuron made up of

A

-Cell body
-Axons
-Dendrites

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6
Q

What does Cranial mean in the terms of neuroanatomy

A

Towards the head

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7
Q

What does caudal mean in the terms of neuroanatomy

A

Towards the tail end

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8
Q

What does rostral mean in terms of neuroanatomy

A

Towards the face

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9
Q

How does the central nervous system start within the embryo

A

The CNS first develops as a tube, during the development of the foetus the brain end of the tube grows much larger that the other, the larger is where the brain will be and the smaller will become the spinal cord. Along with as the tube grows, 2 flexures develop in the tube resulting in the brain and spinal cord not orientating along the same axis.

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10
Q

What does rostral mean in relation to the brain

A

Anterior

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11
Q

What does caudal mean in relation to the brain

A

Posterior

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12
Q

What does rostral mean in relation to the spinal cord

A

Superior

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13
Q

What does rostral mean in relation to the spinal cord

A

Superior

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14
Q

What are the 2 anatomical subdivisions of the nervous system

A
  • Central nervous system (CNS)
    -Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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15
Q

What is the CNS composed of

A

Brain
Spinal cord

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16
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system composed of

A

All nervous tissue outside the CNS, primarily nerves

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17
Q

What are the 3 types of nerves found in the PNS

A

Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
Autonomic nerves

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18
Q

What are 2 the functional subdivisions of the nervous system

A

-Somatic nervous system
-Autonomic nervous system

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19
Q

What activities does the somatic nervous system control

A

Voluntary activities under conscious control

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20
Q

What activities does the Autonomic nervous system control

A

Involuntary activities not under conscious control

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21
Q

What are the 3 main parts of the brain

A

-Cerebrum
-Cerebellum
-Brainstem

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22
Q

What is the Cerebrum?
What is it composed of?
How many parts is it split into?

A

-Largest part of the brain
-Composed of lots of neurones and supporting cells
-Has right and left cerebral hemispheres which are connected

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23
Q

What is the surface of the cerebrum called?
What does this layer contain?
What colour does this layer appear?

A
  • Cerebral cortex
    -Neuron cell bodies
    -Grey (grey matter)
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24
Q

What happens in grey matter?

A

Information is processed

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25
Q

What are the folds called found in the cerebral cortex?
What are the grooves between the folds called?

A

-Gyri (singular= gyrus)
- Sulci (singular= sulcus)

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26
Q

What is found in the cerebral hemispheres?

A

-Masses of axons
-Collections of cell bodies (called nuclei)

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27
Q

What colour are the axons in the cerebral hemispheres?

A

White/pale in appearance, this is known as white matter

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28
Q

What happens within the white matter?

A

Information is transmitted through bundles of fibres

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29
Q

Name the 4 anatomical lobs the cerebral hemispheres are divided into

A

-frontal
-parietal
-occipital
-temporal

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30
Q

Where is the frontal lobe found

A

The large frontal lobe lies anteriorly

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31
Q

Where does the occipital lobe lie

A

The occipital lobe lies posteriorly

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32
Q

Where can the parietal and temporal lobes found

A

These two lobes lie between the frontal and occipital lobes

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33
Q

What is the cerebellum known as?
Where is it found?

A

-the cerebellum is known as the little brain
- The cerebellum lies inferiorly too the posterior part of the cerebrum

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34
Q

How many parts is the cerebellum divided into?

A
  • 2, left and right hemispheres connected to each other
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35
Q

What is the surface of the cerebellum like?

A

Highly folded

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36
Q

What does the cerebellum contain

A

White matter and nuclei

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37
Q

What is the cerebellum attached to

A

The brainstem

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38
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum

A

Functions in
-balance
-coordination
-movement

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39
Q

Does the cerebellum work in our conscious or unconscious control

A

Unconscious control

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40
Q

What are the 3 parts of the brain stem

A

-The midbrain
-The pons
-The medulla

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41
Q

Where can the brainstem be found

A

The brainstem lies inferior to the cerebrum but anterior to the cerebellum, and is attached to both

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42
Q

What is the brainstem function

A

-Relays information between the cerebrum, spinal cord and cerebellum
-Gives rise to cranial nerves
-Contains centres that regulate breathing and consciousness

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43
Q

What is the spinal cord continuous with

A

Medulla

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44
Q

Where does the spinal cord end in relation to the vertebral column

A

The spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column ending at around L1/2

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45
Q

What is the grey matter in the spinal cord

A

The grey matter in the spinal cord are neuronal cell bodies

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46
Q

What does the white matter consists of in relation to the spinal cord

A

The white matter surrounds the grey matter in the spinal cord and contains tracts

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47
Q

What are Tracts in the spinal cord

A

Tracts are bundles of axons that connect different parts of the CNS to each other

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48
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there

A

31 pairs all attached to the spinal cord

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49
Q

What does each pair of spinal nerves do

A

Each pair corresponds to a segment within the spinal cord which carry information between the cord and the periphery such as skin and muscle

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50
Q

What are ventricles in relation to the brain

A

Ventricles are cavities inside the brain filled with Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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51
Q

How does CSF leave the ventricles

A

CSF leaves the ventricles through small openings and surrounds the brain and spinal cord

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52
Q

What is the function of CSF

A

-provides nutrients
-protects (acts as cushion against any trauma)
-Prevents nerves becoming compressed between the brain and skull

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53
Q

What are the 3 membranes called that lie between the brain and spinal cord and the bones

A

The meninges

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54
Q

What are the names of the 3 meninges

A

-Dura mater
-Arachnoid mater
-Pia mater

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55
Q

What is the dura mater

A

The dura mater is the inner surface of the skull (so most outer layer of meninges) it is thick and strong

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56
Q

What is the arachnoid mater

A

This lies deep in from the dura, is thin and loosely encloses the brain and spinal cord

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57
Q

What is the Pia mater

A

The Pia mater is the inner most meninges membrane and is adhered to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, It is very thin

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58
Q

What is the function of the meninges

A

-Protects the brain
-provides scaffold for the blood vessels

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59
Q

What are the 2 pairs of arteries that supply the brain

A
  • the left and right internal carotid arteries
  • the left and right vertebral arteries

Both pairs ascend to the brain via the neck

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60
Q

On the inferior of the cerebrum the arteries give rise to branches which form an interconnected ring- what is this ring called

A

The circle of Willis

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61
Q

What is the circle of Willis an example of

A

Anastomosis

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62
Q

What is anastomosis

A

Anastomosis is where branches from separated arteries unite with each other

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63
Q

Theoretically what does anastomosis allow

A

Anastomosis allows for the blood supply to an area to be maintained even if on vessel which supplies it becomes blocked

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64
Q

What can be found above the circle of Willis

A

-3 Cerebral arteries
- cerebellar arteries
- Arteries that supply the brainstem and spinal cord

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65
Q

Where can veins be found within the brain

A

Veins drain blood from the brain, there are deep and superficial veins and also veins found in the dura mater called dura venous sinuses

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66
Q

What does the motor component of the somatic nervous system do

A

The motor component controls the voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscle eg-movement of limbs

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67
Q

What does the sensory component of the somatic nervous system do

A

The sensory component sends information about peripheral stimuli from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS which then reaches our conscious perception eg-pain

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68
Q

What does the motor component of the autonomic nervous system do

A

The motor component control smooth muscle, glands and cardiac muscle and is divided into 2

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69
Q

What are the 2 subdivisions of the motor component of the autonomic nervous system

A

-Sympathetic nervous system
-Parasympathetic nervous system

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70
Q

What does the sensory component in the autonomic nervous system do

A

The sensory component conveys sensory information about the internal environment from the viscera to the CNS but doesn’t reach our conscious perception eg-blood pressure monitoring

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71
Q

What are sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves also known as

A

Visceral efferent nerves

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72
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for

A

The 4 F’s
-Fight
-Flight
-Fright
-Freeze

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73
Q

What changes happen to the body when the sympathetic nervous system is in play

A

-Heart rate increases
-Bronchi constrict
-Peripheral blood vessels constrict diverting blood away from the skin/gut to skeletal muscles
-Pupils dilate
-Hairs stand on end
-Sweat glands are stimulated

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74
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system prepare the body for

A

Rest and digest

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75
Q

What changes happen to the body when the parasympathetic nervous system is in play

A

-Heart rate decreases
-Bronchi constrict
-Glands are stimulated eg-salivary and digestion
-Peristalsis is stimulated (gut activity)
-Pupils constrict

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76
Q

What is the basic organisation of the sympathetic nervous system

A

-First neuron cell body is in the thoracic or lumbar spinal cord
-Short preganglionic axon
-Second neuron cell body in the ganglion close to the CNS
-Long postganglionic axon
-Target organ/effector eg- smooth muscle of blood vessels

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77
Q

What is the basic organisation of the parasympathetic nervous system

A

-First neuron cell body in the brainstem or sacral spinal cord
-Long preganglionic axon
-Second neuron cell body in a ganglion close to the target organ
-Short postganglionic axon
-Target organ/effector eg-smooth muscle in wall of intestine

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78
Q

Where is the sympathetic ganglia

A

The sympathetic ganglia is closer to the CNS than the target organ meaning the preganglionic axons are short

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79
Q

Where is the parasympathetic ganglia

A

The parasympathetic ganglia is closer to the target organ sometimes even within the target organ so the preganglionic axon is long

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80
Q

Which system out of the sympathetic or parasympathetic is most distributed

A

Sympathetic as the sympathetic nerves innervate the sweat glands and smooth muscle in blood vessel walls and hair follicles (the arrector pili muscles) which reach every part of the body

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81
Q

What is the function of the viscera afferent fibres from the autonomic nervous system

A

-They monitor internal environment eg-blood pressure and levels of oxygen and c02 in our blood, send this information to the CNS which inputs elicit reflex constantly maintaining internal environment

  • Convey information to the CNS about distension, stretch, spasm or ischaemia which causes pain and is reached by our consciousness
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82
Q

Where can you find the cranial nerves

A

The cranial nerves arise from the cerebrum and brainstem

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83
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there

A

12 pairs

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84
Q

Where do the cranial nerves serve

A

The head and neck

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85
Q

Where do the cranial nerves exit the skull

A

The cranial nerves exit the skull though the holes in the base Called foramina (singular= foramen)

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86
Q

What can cranial nerves be made up of

A
  • they can be made up of purely sensory, purely motor or both and some carry parasympathetic fibres
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87
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there

A

31 pairs

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88
Q

How many of each spinal nerve do we have

A

-8 cervical nerves
-12 thoracic nerves
-5 lumbar nerves
-5 sacral nerves
-1 coccygeal nerve

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89
Q

What are spinal nerves composed of

A

-They are mixed and can carry
Somatic motor fibres from CNS to body
Sympathetic (autonomic motor fibres) from CNS to body
Somatic sensory fibres from body to CNS

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90
Q

What are the intervertebral foramina

A

The gaps in the vertebral column which the spinal nerves pass through

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91
Q

Tell me everything about the somatic motor fibres

A

Somatic motor fibres
The cell bodies of the fibres lie in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, this is the grey matter. The axons leave the cord via rootless which come together to form the ventral (motor) root. These fibres stimulate the voluntary contraction of skeletal muscle

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92
Q

Tell me everything about somatic sensory fibres

A

Somatic sensory fibres
The cell bodies lie in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), they are small swellings on the dorsal roots. These neurons have 2 processes; one projects peripherally into a spinal nerve and one projects centrally into the dorsal horn

Sensory information travels from peripheral receptors eg-skin towards the DRG via spinal nerves which then travels to the dorsal horn via the rootlets

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93
Q

What do sympathetic fibres do

A

They stimulate the sweat glands and the contraction of smooth muscle

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94
Q

What is a dermatome

A

A dermatome is an area of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve

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95
Q

What does a dermatome map show

A

The map shows the cutaneous territories of each spinal nerve

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96
Q

What is a myotome

A

A myotome is a group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve

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97
Q

What is the sagittal plane

A

This is a vertical plane which passes through the length of the sagittal suture of the skull in the long axis of the brain

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98
Q

What is a parasagittal plane

A

This is planes that lie parallel to the sagittal plane but going away from the midline

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99
Q

In terms of the brain what does medial mean

A

Towards the sagittal plane

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100
Q

In terms of the brain what does lateral mean

A

Away from the sagittal plane

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101
Q

In terms of the brain what does superior mean

A

Towards the upper most part of the cerebral hemisphere

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102
Q

In terms of the brain what does inferior mean

A

Towards the base of the brain

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103
Q

What does rostral mean

A

Towards the front of the brain

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104
Q

What does caudal mean

A

Towards the tail of the brain

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105
Q

What does dorsal mean in the cerebral hemisphere

A

Superior

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106
Q

What does ventral mean in the cerebral hemisphere

A

Inferior

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107
Q

What is the coronal plane

A

This goes through the coronal suture of the skull perpendicular to the sagittal plane which divides the front and back of the brain

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108
Q

What is the horizontal plane

A

This intersects both the sagittal and coronal plane at right angles and splits the brain into superior and inferior

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109
Q

What is the brain also known as

A

The encephalon

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110
Q

How many parts is the brain divided into

A

3 parts

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111
Q

What are the 3 parts of the brain

A

The hindbrain
The midbrain
The forebrain

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112
Q

What is the hindbrain subdivided into

A

Medulla oblongata
Pons
Cerebellum

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113
Q

What is the medulla oblongata derived from.

A

The myelencephalon

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114
Q

What is the pons derived from

A

The metencephalon

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115
Q

What is the cerebellum derived from

A

The metencephalon

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116
Q

What is the hindbrain also known as

A

The rhombencephalon

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117
Q

What is the midbrain subdivided into

A

The tectum
The cerebral peduncle

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118
Q

Where is the tectum located

A

This is the part of the midbrain which lies dorsal to the central canal

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119
Q

What is the central canal of the tectum also known as

A

The cerebral aqueduct

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120
Q

What does the tectum comprise of

A

The superior and inferior colliculi

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121
Q

What is the superior and inferior colliculi also known as

A

The corpora quadrigemina

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122
Q

Where is the cerebral peduncle located

A

This is located in the midbrain ventral (inferior) to the cerebral aqueduct

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123
Q

What is the cerebral peduncle subdivided into

A

Dorsal (superior) part the tegmentum
Ventral (inferior) crus cerebri

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124
Q

What is the crus cerebri

A

This is a large fibre tract that runs on each side of the midline of the cerebral peduncle

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125
Q

How are the tegmentum and the crus cerebri seperated

A

They are seperated by a narrow lamina of pigmented cell

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126
Q

What is the lamina that seperates the tegmentum and crus cerebri called

A

The substantia nigra

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127
Q

What are the Crura cerebri

A

They are large bundles of white matter which emerge from the cerebral hemispheres, one on each side of the midline which pass backwards and downwards before converging into the midline at the upper border of the pons

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128
Q

What do the crus cerebri form

A

They form the part of the cerebral peduncle which is visible on the inferior surface of the brain

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129
Q

What is the midbrain also known as

A

The mesencephalon

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130
Q

What does the forebrain form

A

The forebrain forms the majority of the brain

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131
Q

What is the forebrain divide into

A

The diencephalon
The telencephalon

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132
Q

What is the diencephalon derived from

A

This is derived from the anterior part of the developing neural tube

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133
Q

What does the diencephalon comprise of

A

The thalamus
The hypothalamus (with the epi- and sub-thalamus of each side)

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134
Q

Where is the telencephalon derived from

A

This is derived from the cerebral vesicle of each side

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135
Q

What does the telencephalon comprised of

A

It is comprised of an outer layer of grey matter and deep nuclei

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136
Q

In the telencephalon what is the outer layer of grey matter also known as

A

The cerebral cortex

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137
Q

In the telencephalon what are the deep nuclei

A

The basal ganglia

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138
Q

What are the meninges

A

They are 3 separate tubular sheaths of membrane which surround and enclose the entire CNS

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139
Q

What are the 3 layers of the meninges

A

The dura mater
The arachnoid mater
The Pia mater

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140
Q

What is the dura mater and what does it comprise

A

This is the outer most meningeal layer which is a fibrous sheet containing white collagen fibres and a few elastic fibres arranged into dense laminae of often parallel fibres. It can have a lattice like appearance due to the wide angle between each direction of fibres in the adjacent laminae. It is made up of 2 layers the outer endosteal layer known as the periosteum and the inner meningeal layer which is the dura mater proper

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141
Q

What is the arachnoid mater and what is it comprised of

A

The arachnoid mater is a poorly vascularised membrane made up of loose connective tissue consisting of collagen, elastin and reticulum fibres which loosely covers the brain

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142
Q

What is the Pia mater and what is it comprised of

A

The Pia mater is the inner most meningeal layer which adheres to the surface of the CNS following all Gyral and sulcal folds. The inner most layer of pial cells are formed by the underlying end feet of astrocytes with their covering membrane

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143
Q

What seperates the pia mater and the arachnoid mater

A

The subarachnoid space

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144
Q

What does the subarachnoid space contain

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

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145
Q

What is white matter

A

White matter is collections of nerve fibres/axons which are wrapped in a fatty sheath known as the myelin sheath with very little neuronal somata (cell bodies)

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146
Q

what is grey matter

A

Grey matter is formed in the CNS by the aggregations of neuronal cell bodies and their local processes

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147
Q

What is the neuropil in relation to grey matter

A

The neuropil is a network of intermingled and interconnected neuronal processes which occupies space between the cell bodies

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148
Q

What colour would you expect myelinated nerves to be

A

The myelinated nerve fibres would appear white due to the fatty myelin sheaths

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149
Q

What colour would you expect the non-myelinated fibres to be

A

The non-myelinated fibres would expect to be grey due to the lacking of the fatty myelin sheath

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150
Q

What are clusters of nerve cell bodies in the brain known as

A

Nuclei or ganglia

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151
Q

What is the cortex and what is it formed of

A

The outer surface of the brain and is formed by flatter sheets of neurones

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152
Q

In the spinal cord where would you find grey matter

A

In the spinal cord the grey matter makes up the core butterfly shape

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153
Q

What does the frontal cortex contain

A

The primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex

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154
Q

What is the temporal lobe made up of

A

Primary auditory cortex, auditory association cortex, hippocampus and amygdala

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155
Q

What is the parietal lobe made up of

A

Primary somatosensory cortex and association cortex

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156
Q

What is the occipital lobe made up of

A

Primary visual and visual association cortex

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157
Q

What does the cerebellum control

A

Motor control of equilibrium, posture and muscle tone and movement co-ordination

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158
Q

What is the brain stem made up of

A

Ascending and descending tracts, Cranial nerve nuclei and the reticular formation

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159
Q

What is a gyri

A

The rolls of the cerebral cortex

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160
Q

What are the sulci

A

The grooves between the gyri

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161
Q

What is the central sulcus

A

A large fissure separating the frontal from the parietal lobe

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162
Q

What is the lateral sulcus

A

A large fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes

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163
Q

What is the occipital pole

A

This is the posterior most part of the occipital lobe is known as the occipital pole

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164
Q

What is the insula

A

This is the floor of the lateral sulcus

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165
Q

What is the opercula

A

This is the part of the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes which overlie the insula

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166
Q

What is the corpus callosum

A

This is a large bundle of white matter which connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain

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167
Q

Where are the olfactory tracts located

A

They run on the inferior surface of the frontal lobes

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168
Q

Where are the optic nerves located

A

They are seen passing backwards, medially and converging to from the optic chiasma and then pass backwards, and laterally into the optic tracts

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169
Q

What is the optic chiasma

A

The optic chiasma is a place within the brain where optic nerves from one eye come and cross and go to the other eye

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170
Q

What are mammillary bodies

A

They are 2 rounded eminences behind the optic chiasma

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171
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located

A

The hypothalamus is found behind the optic chiasma including the mammillary bodies and is the only part of the diencephalon visible on the outside of the brain

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172
Q

Where are the crus cerebri of the cerebral peduncles located

A

They are located behind the mammillary bodies on each side of from the cerebral hemispheres which then pass backwards converging in the midline at the upper border of the pons

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173
Q

What is the interperpendicular fossa

A

This is the space between the crura roofed over by arachnoid

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174
Q

Where is the pons located

A

The pons is located immediately behind where the crura meet in the midline

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175
Q

What is the role of the pons

A

It provides a bridge of neural tissue between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata

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176
Q

What is the cerebellum known as and how many lobes does it have

A

This is known as the little brain and has 2 lobes

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177
Q

Where are the lobes of the cerebellum located

A

The lobes of the cerebellum are located one either side of the medulla

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178
Q

What joins the 2 lobes of the cerebellum together

A

Central vermis

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179
Q

Where is the medulla oblongata located

A

This runs from the caudal border of the pons to where the spinal cord is

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180
Q

Where is the parietal lobe located

A

The parietal lobe is located from the central sulcus anteriorly to the imaginary parietoocipital fissure posteriorly

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181
Q

What area does the parietal lobe contain

A

The parietal lobe contains the primary sensory area

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182
Q

How many parietal lobes are there

A

2

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183
Q

What are the 2 lobes of the parietal lobes

A

The more dominant left lobe and the non-dominant right lobe

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184
Q

What is the dominant left parietal lobe important for

A

Perception, interpretation of sensory information and formation of the idea of a complex, meaningful motor response

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185
Q

Where are the supramarginal and angular gyrus found

A

They are found in the dominant left parietal lobe

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186
Q

What are the supramarginal and angular gyrus important for

A

They are concerned with language and Mathematical operations

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187
Q

What is the non-dominant right partietal lobe important for

A

Visuospatial functions

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188
Q

What is the frontal lobe involved with

A

Motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, judgement, personality, impulse control, social behaviour and sexual behaviour

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189
Q

What is the pre-frontal cortex important for

A

The pre-frontal or anterior portion of the frontal lobe is important for higher cognitive functions and the determination of personality

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190
Q

What is the posterior portion of the frontal cortex important for

A

The posterior portion of the frontal cortex is important for motor and pre motor areas

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191
Q

Where is Broca’s area located

A

Broca’s area is located at the left inferior frontal gyrus

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192
Q

What is Broca’s area important for

A

Language production and comprehension

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193
Q

What does the temporal lobe contain

A

The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and wirnicke’s area

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194
Q

Where is wernicke’s area located

A

Wernicke’s area is located in the superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere

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195
Q

What is wernicke’s area important for

A

Understanding spoken words

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196
Q

Where is the auditory cortex found in the temporal lobe

A

The auditory cortex is found around the lateral fissure

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197
Q

What is the lateral fissure in the temporal lobe also known as

A

The Sylvian fissure

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198
Q

Where is the occipital lobe located

A

The occipital lobe is located at the posterior aspect of the brain

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199
Q

What does the occipital lobe contain

A

The occipital lobe contains the primary visual and visual association cortex

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200
Q

Where is the limb in system found

A

The lambic system is found surrounding the medial margin of the hemisphere

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201
Q

What does the lambic system include

A

The hippocampus, fornix, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia and the cingulate gyrus

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202
Q

What is the limbic system important for

A

The limbic system is involved in emotion, memory, behaviour and olfaction

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203
Q

What is the hippocampus involved in

A

The hippocampus is involved in long term memory formation

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204
Q

What is the amygdala important in?

A

The amygdala is important in motivationally significant stimuli such as reward and fear

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205
Q

How does the limbic system operate

A

The limbic system operates via stimulating the endocrine system and autonomic nervous system and is highly interconnected with the brains pleasure centre

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206
Q

What is the nucleus accumbens and where is it found

A

The nucleus accumbens plays a role in sexual arousal and the high experience with recreational drugs
It is found in the limbic system in the basal region

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207
Q

Where is the outer endosteal layer found

A

The outer endosteal layer lines the interior of the skull

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208
Q

What is the role of the outer endosteal layer do

A

It sends blood vessels and fibrous processes into the cranial bones

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209
Q

Where is the inner meningeal layer found

A

The inner meningeal layer is found enveloping the entire CNS continuing as a tube of dura around the spinal cord

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210
Q

What is the role of the inner meningeal layer

A

It provides tubular sheaths for the cranial nerves

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211
Q

Is the inner and outer layer of the dura mater continuously fused

A

No, in places the inner layer seperates from the skull to form dual folds which supports the subdivisions of the brain and partially divide the cranial cavity into 3 areas

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212
Q

What are the 3 areas that the dual folds of the inner meningeal layer create

A

The right hemisphere
The left hemisphere
The posterior cranial fossa

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213
Q

What is found in the posterior cranial fossa

A

The cerebellum

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214
Q

What create the dura venous sinuses

A

Where the dural folds attach to the skull there is a system of communicating blood filled spaces which are known as the dural sinuses

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215
Q

What is the falx cerebri

A

This is an arched crescent of dura lying in the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres

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216
Q

Where can the superior sagittal sinus be found

A

The superior sagittal sinus is found where the falx cerebri attaches to the cranium

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217
Q

Where can the inferior sagittal sinus be found

A

The inferior sagittal sinus is found at the free border of the falx cerebri

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218
Q

What is the tentorium cerebelli

A

The tentorium cerebelli is a dura forming thick fibrous roof over the posterior cranial fossa and the cerebellum

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219
Q

Where is the straight sinus found

A

The straight sinus can be found within the tentorium cerebelli at its attachment of the falx cerebri

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220
Q

What is the tentorial inscisure

A

The tentorial inscisure is a horseshoe-shape between the free concave border of the tentorium and the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid

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221
Q

Where is the transverse sinus found

A

The transverse sinus is found running along the line of attachement of the tentorium cerebelli to the occipital bone

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222
Q

Where is the cavernous sinus found

A

The cavernous sinus is found lateral to the body of the sphenoid

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223
Q

Where is the trigeminal cave found

A

The trigeminal cave is found next to the apex of the pet Roy’s part of the temporal bone and envelops the roots of the trigeminal nerve

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224
Q

What is the diaphragma sellae

A

This is a small circular horizontal fold of the dura mater which forms the roof of the pituitary fossa

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225
Q

What is the falx cerebelli

A

The falx cerebelli is a small vertical, sickle shaped reflection of dura separating the two lobes of the cerebellum

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226
Q

What is the arachnoid mater

A

The arachnoid mater is the meningeal layer which encloses the brain loosely following the contour of the meningeal layer of the dura

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227
Q

What are the subarachnoid cisterns

A

Subarachnoid cisterns are spaces found between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater where the arachnoid mater spans the gyri of the brain

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228
Q

What is the foramen magenide

A

The foramen magenide is a midline communication between the 4th ventricle and the subarachnoid space

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229
Q

What is the foramen luschka

A

The foramen luschka is a lateral communication between the 4th ventricle and the subarachnoid space

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230
Q

Where is the cerebellomedullary cistern found

A

This cistern is found in the angle formed by the dorsal surface of the medulla and the inferior surface of the pons

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231
Q

Where is the pontine cistern found

A

The pontine cistern is found on the ventral surface of the pons

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232
Q

What does the interpenduncular cistern contain

A

This cistern contains the circle of Willis

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233
Q

What does the cistern of the lateral fissure contain

A

This fissure contains the middle cerebral artery

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234
Q

What is the role of the cistern of the lateral fissure

A

The cistern of the lateral fissure bridges the lateral sulcus on each side

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235
Q

What does the superior cistern contain

A

The superior cistern contains the greater cerebral vein of Galen and the pineal gland

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236
Q

Where is the superior cistern found

A

The superior cistern is found between the posterior end of the corpus callosum and the superior surface of the cerebellum

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237
Q

What are the cisterna ambiens

A

These are a group of subarachnoid cisterns which completely encircle the midbrain

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238
Q

What is the pia mater

A

The pia mater is the meningeal layer is adhered to the nervous tissue below and Connor be seen with the naked eye

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239
Q

Why is the pia mater important

A

The pia mater is important because it forms part of the blood brain Barrier

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240
Q

How does the pia mater act as a barrier between the blood vessels and neurological tissue

A

On the surface of the brain the arteries lie in the subarachnoid space, as the vessels pass into the substance of the brain they take prolongations of the pia mater and some of the subarachnoid space, which forms a layer around the blood vessel. As the blood vessel penetrates deeper into the brain the tunica media thins and the prolongations of the subarachnoid space narrows. At the level of the capillary network the basement membranes of the endothelial cells of the pia fuse.

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241
Q

What does the blood brain Barrier do

A

The blood brain barrier is a combination of features, unique to the brain and spinal cord that limits the ability of molecules to pass between the blood and CNS which protects the tissues from toxic substances

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242
Q

What features protects the tissue from the toxic substances

A
  • tight junctions to prevent molecules passing between the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels
    -the basement membrane of CNS lack fenestrations
    -pericytes that are found in the basement membrane which wrap around the endothelial cells which regulate capillary blood flow, immunity and vascular permeability
    -astrocytes extend processes called end feet that envelop CNS capillaries and restrict flow of molecules into CNS parenchyma
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243
Q

What is meningitis

A

Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges usually caused by an infection

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244
Q

Symptoms of meningitis

A

Headache
Neck stiffness
Photophobia
Nausea/vomiting
Fever

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245
Q

What are the 2 types of meningitis

A

Viral
Bacterial

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246
Q

Why is bacterial meningitis more serious than viral meningitis

A

Bacterial meningitis is where the infection will be circulating in the brain and causing the meninges to become inflamed as it is passing through and so can be life threatening

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247
Q

Where is an extradural haemorrhage
what does it cause
When does it occur
Where does the blood come from

A

An extradural haemorrhage is between the skull and the dura mater. This haemorrhage causes strips of the dura to come away from the skull and compress the brain. This typically is seen after head injury. The blood comes from the meningeal arteries

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248
Q

What is a subdural haemorrhage
When is it usually seen

A

A subdural haemorrhage is found between the dura and the arachnoid mater
This type of haemorrhage is typically seen after a high impact injury such as a car accident

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249
Q

What is a chronic subdural haemorrhage

A

A chronic subdural haemorrhage is seen in the elderly patients 4-8 weeks after a mild/moderate head injury

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250
Q

What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage
When is this typically seen

A

This haemorrhage is seen between the arachnoid and pia mater
This type of haemorrhage is typically seen after ahead injury

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251
Q

What happens in a traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage or rupture of a berry aneurysm

A

The blood surrounds the brain and fills the sulci near to the site of injury

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252
Q

Symptoms of a traumatic subarachnoid/berry aneurysm rupture

A

Severe sudden headache

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253
Q

What is an intracerebral haemorrhage
What is a classic location of this haemorrhage

A

This haemorrhage is where the rupture of small vessels and micro aneurysms bleed within the brain tissue
Classic location for this is the internal capsule following rupture of the lenticulostriate artery due to high blood pressure

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254
Q

What is amaurosis fugax and what causes it

A

This is the temporary loss of Vision to one eye due to part of the carotid plaque breaks off and occludes the central retinal artery

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255
Q

Where are the arteries and veins of the brain found

A

In the subarachnoid space

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256
Q

Why are the superficial cerebral veins easily distinguished

A

They have a dark colour due to fixed and coagulated blood been visible through the thin walls

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257
Q

How can you distinguish arteries in the brain

A

They looker paler in colour due to having thick muscular walls so they are not easily torn

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258
Q

What is the role of the blood brain Barrier and how does it achieve this

A

The role of the blood brain barrier is to prevent the passage of some substances through to the nervous tissue and it does this through
The endothelial cells of the capillaries
The basement membrane between the endothelial cells and the astrocytic end feet
The astrocytic end feet

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259
Q

How does arterial blood enter the brain

A

The arterial blood enters the vein through the skull via 2 pairs of vessels the internal carotid and the vertebral arteries

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260
Q

What percentage of blood do the vertebral arteries supply the brain with

A

20%

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261
Q

What do the vertebral arteries supply in the brain

A

They supply the posterior cerebrum and the contents of the posterior cranial fossa

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262
Q

What percentage of blood do the internal carotid arteries supply to the brain

A

80%

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263
Q

What do the internal carotid arteries supply in the brain

A

They supply the anterior and middle parts of the cerebrum and the diencephalon

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264
Q

Where are the arteries of the brain weak and what can this cause

A

They are weak at the branches which can cause berry aneurysms

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265
Q

Where do the internal carotid arteries arise from

A

They arise from the bifurcation of the common carotid arteries

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266
Q

Where do the common carotid armies bifurcate into the internal carotid arteries

A

At the level upper border of the thyroid cartilage

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267
Q

Where do the internal carotid arteries enter the skull

A

They enter the skull through the temporal bone and lie in the carotid canal

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268
Q

From the carotid canal where do the internal carotid arteries travel

A

They travel through the dura mater to form the roof of the cavernous sinus to enter the cranial cavity, as they reach the anterior perforated substance at the medial end of the lateral sulcus it divides into its terminal branches and the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. This is known as the anterior circulation

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269
Q

Why is the anterior circulation clinically important

A

The anterior circulation is clinically important as topographically-specific regions of the pre central and post central gyri receive their blood supply via different arteries

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270
Q

What do the internal carotid arteries branch into

A

The internal carotid arteries divide into terminal branches which then become the anterior and middle cerebral arteries

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271
Q

What does the anterior cerebral arteries supply

A

They supply the corpus callosum and the medial aspects of the hemispheres

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272
Q

What is the middle cerebral artery and what does it supply

A

The middle cerebral artery is the largest of the terminal branches of the internal carotid arteries
The middle cerebral artey supplies the majority of the lateral surface of the lateral surface of the hemisphere via its anterior perforating branches

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273
Q

What is the anterior communicating artery

A

This is an artery which connects together the two anterior cerebral arteries and provides the anterior perforating branches

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274
Q

What is the posterior communicating artery

A

The posterior communicating artery connects the internal carotid and vertebra-basilar systems via the posterior cerebral artery

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275
Q

What is the circle of Willis

A

The circle of Willis is a structure which provides an anastomotic connection between the anterior and posterior circulations providing a collateral blow flow to the brain

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276
Q

What arteries make up the circle of Willis

A

The circle of Willis is made up by the left and right internal carotid arteries, left and right anterior cerebral arteries and the left and right posterior cerebral arteries

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277
Q

What do the central branches from the circle of Willis supply

A

The central branches from the circle of Willis supply the deep structures of the hemisphere including the internal capsule

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278
Q

The cerebral arteries and the capillaries of the circle of Willis are in continuity but no functional anastamosis between them, why is this clinically important

A

This is clinically important as infarction of one area does not automatically mean that supply will be taken up by other vessels due to there been no functional anastomosis

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279
Q

Where does the vertebral arteries arise from

A

The vertebral arteries arise from the first part of the subclavian artery

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280
Q

Where do the vertebral arteries enter the skull

A

The vertebral arteries enter the skull through the foramen magnum

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281
Q

Where to the vertebral arteries unite

A

The vertebral arteries unite in the midline at the lower border of the pons

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282
Q

What does the vertebral arteries unite to form

A

The vertebral arteries unite to form the basilar artery

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283
Q

Where is the basilar artery found

A

The basilar artery is found lying in the anterior median fissure on the pons

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284
Q

What makes up the posterior circulation

A

The vertebral and basilar arteries, the branches from them and the posterior cerebral artery are known of the posterior circulation

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285
Q

How are the anterior and posterior circulations linked

A

The anterior and posterior circulations are linked via the circle of Willis

286
Q

What is a berry aneurysm

A

This is a congenital sac-like out pouching of an intracranial artery which will progressively enlarge until rupturing resulting in a subarachnoid or intracerebral haemorrhage

287
Q

Where do berry aneurysms usually occur

A

They usually occur on the branches around the circle of Willis, mostly the anterior communicating artery which is found in the sub arachnoid space

288
Q

What are the 2 types of stroke

A

Ischaemic and haemorrhagic

289
Q

How is blood drained from the brain

A

Veins in the brain drain blood back to the heart via the dural venous sinuses

290
Q

What are dural venous sinuses

A

They are channels formed between the two layers of dura mater

291
Q

What are the cerebral veins divided into

A

Internal cerebral veins and external cerebral veins

292
Q

Where do the internal cerebral veins run

A

The internal cerebral veins run within the substances of the brain tissue and end when they reach the surface of the brain where they become external cerebral veins

293
Q

Where do the external cerebral veins run

A

The external cerebral veins run on the surface of the brain crossing the subarachnoid space to drain into the dural venous sinuses

294
Q

Where does the great cerebral vein of Galen drain

A

This vein drains the deep structures of the brain and drains into the straight sinuses

295
Q

What is the role of the dural venous sinuses

A

The sinuses connect the major cerebral veins to the internal jugular veins

296
Q

Where can the major venous sinuses be found

A

The major venous sinuses can be found in the attached borders of the falx cerebri, the tentorium cerebelli and the floor of the cranial cavity

297
Q

Where is the inferior sagittal sinus found

A

The inferior sagittal sinus is found at the inferior margin of the falx cerebri

298
Q

Where is the superior sagittal sinus found

A

The superior sagittal sinus is found at the superior border of the falx cerebri

299
Q

Where is the straight sinus found

A

The straight sinus is found in the midline of the tentorium cerebelli

300
Q

Where is the transverse sinus found

A

The transverse sinus is found in the posterior fixed margin of tentorium cerebelli

301
Q

Where is the sigmoid sinus found

A

The sigmoid sinus is found in a deep groove in the mastoid part of the temporal bone

302
Q

Where is the cavernous sinus found

A

The cavernous sinus is found beside the body of the sphenoid bone

303
Q

What does the cavernous sinus contain

A

The cavernous sinus contains 5 cranial nerves and the internal carotid artery

304
Q

Where is the superior petrosal sinus found

A

The superior petrosal sinus is found in the attached lateral margin of the tentorium cerebelli

305
Q

Where is the inferior petrosal sinus found

A

The inferior petrosal sinus is found in the groove between the petrous temporal bone and the basal part of the occipital bone

306
Q

How do the intracranial sinuses and the veins outside the skull communicate

A

The intracranial sinuses and veins outside the skull communicate via the variable number of emissary veins

307
Q

Why are the emissary veins important

A

The emissary veins important as the represent a possible route for infection or inflammation to spread into the cranial cavity from the outside of the skull

308
Q

What can cause venous sinus thrombosis

A

Venous sinus thrombosis can be caused by rare complications of birth, clotting disorders and ear infections

309
Q

What can obstruction of venous drainage cause

A

Cerebral odema and raised intracranial pressure

310
Q

What can venous sinus thrombosis result in

A

Brain damage which is shown through headache and epileptic seizures, focal motor deficit and deterioration of consciousness

311
Q

What forms the ventricles in the brain

A

The brain develops from a hollow neutral tube which remains hollow, the central spaces become the ventricles

312
Q

What are ventricles important for

A

The formation of cerebrospinal fluid

313
Q

Where is the largest aggregation of choroid plexus found

A

Found in the lateral ventricle

314
Q

Where is the majority of the cerebrospinal fluid produced

A

The majority of the cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the lateral ventricle

315
Q

How does cerebrospinal fluid pass from the ventricles

A

Cerebrospinal fluid passes from the ventricles via the intraventricular foramen and into the 3rd ventricle

316
Q

From the 3rd ventricle where does the cerebrospinal fluid flow

A

From the 3rd ventricle the cerebrospinal fluid passes backwards through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle

317
Q

How does the 4th ventricle communicate with the subarachnoid space

A

The 4th ventricle communicates with the subarachnoid space via the median foramen of magendie and the lateral foramen of luschka

318
Q

How does the cerebrospinal fluid pass into the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord

A

The cerebrospinal fluid passes through the median foramen of magendie and lateral foramen of luschka

319
Q

What is the choroid plexus

A

The choroid plexus is an invagination of vessels into the ventricles which produces a vascular fold of pia mater covered by an epithelium derived from the ependymal lining of the ventricle

320
Q

What prevents the passage of fluid from the extra cellular space of the choroid plexus

A

Tight junctions

321
Q

How can fluid from the extracellular space of the choroid plexus into the ventricles

A

Via the choroidal cells

322
Q

With fluid only been able to pass from the extracellular space into the ventricles via choroidal cells what does this enable

A

This enables high control over the volume and composition of the cerebrospinal fluid

323
Q

What does the cerebrospinal fluid brain barrier constitute of

A

The ependyma

324
Q

How does the cerebrospinal fluid become re absorbed into the venous drainage of the brain

A

Resorption of cerebrospinal fluid into the venous drainage of the brain occurs via tufts of the arachnoid mater

325
Q

What are the tufts of the arachnoid mater that aid cerebrospinal resorption called

A

They are called arachnoid villi

326
Q

How are the arachnoid granulations formed

A

Arachnoid granulations are formed via the calcification of the arachnoid villi

327
Q

Why do arachnoid villi calcify

A

They calcify due to advancing age

328
Q

What does the presence of arachnoid villi cause

A

The arachnoid villi tend to cause the bone to be resorbed along the internal surface of the cranial vault near the midline which causes small pit like structures

329
Q

What is the ventricle aperture of the magendie foramen

A

The magendie foramen is the medial aperture

330
Q

What is the ventricle aperture of the luschka foramen

A

The luschka foramen is the lateral aperture

331
Q

What does the anterior cranial fossa contain

A

The frontal lobe of the brain

332
Q

What is the ethmoid bone composed of

A

Cribriform plates and the crista galli

333
Q

What does the middle cranial fossa contain

A

Temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the brain

334
Q

What does the posterior cranial fossa contain

A

The cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata

335
Q

What runs through the carotid foramen

A

The internal carotid artery

336
Q

What runs through the jugular foramen

A

Internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, XI

337
Q

What runs through the foramen magnum

A

Vertebral arteries
Anterior and posterior spinal arteries
Spinal cord

338
Q

What runs through the internal acoustic meatus

A

Cranial nerve VII- facial nerve
Cranial nerve VIII- vestibulocochlear nerve

339
Q

What runs through the ethmoid foramen

A

Cranial nerve I- Olfactory nerve

340
Q

What runs through the optic canal

A

Cranial nerve II- optic nerve

341
Q

What runs through the orbital fissure

A

Cranial nerve III- Oculomotor nerve
Cranial nerve IV- trochlea nerve
Cranial nerve VI- abductees nerve
Cranial nerve V 1- trigeminal ophthalmic

342
Q

What runs through the foramen rotundum

A

Cranial nerve V 2- trigeminal maxillary nerve

343
Q

What runs through the foramen ovale

A

Cranial nerve V 3- trigeminal mandibular

344
Q

What runs through the hypoglossal canal

A

Cranial nerve XII- hypoglossal

345
Q

What can cause raised inter-cranial pressure

A

Space occupying lesions such as tumours, haematoma’s or abscesses
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension

346
Q

What are examples of signs and symptoms caused by raised intracranial pressure

A

Headaches
Nausea
Visual disturbances
Altered consciousness

347
Q

What is the orbit

A

The orbit is the bony structure that protects the eyeball and associated structures

348
Q

What is the supra-orbital nerve a branch of

A

A branch of the frontal nerve

349
Q

What is the supratrochlear nerve a branch of

A

The frontal nerve

350
Q

Where does the frontal nerve run

A

Centrally

351
Q

What is the lacrimal nerve a branch of

A

The frontal nerve

352
Q

Where does the lacrimal nerve run

A

Laterally in the orbit

353
Q

Where does the levator palpebrae superioris originate

A

It originates at the posterior of the orbit at the common tendinous ring

354
Q

Where does the levator palpebrae superioris insert

A

Into the upper eyelid

355
Q

Where is the lacrimal gland located

A

Just inside the lateral margin of the orbit adjacent to the lateral margin of levator palpebrae superioris

356
Q

Where does the superior rectus originate

A

It originates in the deep part of the orbit at the common tendinous ring

357
Q

Where does the superior rectus run

A

It runs over the top of the eyeball

358
Q

Where does the superior rectus insert

A

It inserts anterior to the equator to the eyeball just behind the conjunctival sac

359
Q

Where is the trochlear nerve located

A

At the medial edge of the superior orbital fissure

360
Q

Where does the trochlear nerve run

A

It passed froward from the cavernous sinus and terminates on the superior oblique muscle

361
Q

Where does the lateral rectus muscle run

A

It runs along the length of the lateral walls of the orbit on a deeper plane of the larcrimal gland

362
Q

Where is the oculomotor nerve located

A

Deep to the levator palpebrae superioris

363
Q

Where does the superior oblique originate

A

It originates at the posterior of the orbit

364
Q

Where does the superior oblique run

A

It runs forward to pass through the trochlear

365
Q

Where does the superior oblique insert

A

It inserts onto the posterior part of the eyeball

366
Q

Where does the medial rectus muscle run

A

The medial rectus muscle runs along the length of the medial aspect of the orbit on a deeper plane than the superior oblique muscle

367
Q

What is the ophthalmic artery a branch of

A

Internal carotid artery

368
Q

Where does the ophthalmic artery run

A

The ophthalmic artery runs lateral to medial over the optic nerve

369
Q

Where does the central artery of the retina pass into

A

The central artery of the retina passes into the optic nerve

370
Q

What does the nasociliary nerve attach to

A

Attached to the ciliary ganglion

371
Q

What lies above the inferior rectus muscle

A

Subarachnoid space

372
Q

Where is the oculomotor nerve located

A

The oculomotor nerve is located to both the medial and inferior rectus muscles

373
Q

Where is the abducens nerve located

A

The abducens nerve is located to the lateral rectus muscle

374
Q

Where does the inferior oblique muscle run

A

The inferior oblique muscle runs from the medial aspect of the orbit posterolaterally

375
Q

Where does the inferior oblique muscle insert

A

The inferior oblique muscle inserts onto the sclera behind the equator of the eyeball

376
Q

What are the lacrimal puncti

A

Small medial holes in the upper and lower eyelids

377
Q

Where is the lacrimal sac located

A

Posterior to the medial palpebral ligaments

378
Q

Where does the nasolacrimal duct drain from and to

A

The nasolacrimal duct drains from the inferior part of the lacrimal sac to the nasal cavity

379
Q

Where does parasympathetic outflow from the CNS run via

A

Via the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves and the sacral spinal segments 2, 3 and 4

380
Q

Where do parasympathetic fibres from the oculomotor nerve originate from

A

They originate in the Edinger-Westphalia nucleus in the midbrain

381
Q

Where do parasympathetic fibres travel into from the Edinger-westphal nucleus

A

They travel into the branch to the inferior oblique muscle

382
Q

When the parasympathetic fibres leave the inferior oblique muscle where does it enter

A

It enters a small ganglion, the ciliary ganglion

383
Q

What do fibres that leave the ciliary ganglion innervate

A

Innervate the ciliary muscle and sphincter pupillae

384
Q

Where do parasympathetic fibres of the facial nerve leave and synapse

A

The parasympathetic fibres of the facial nerve leave the facial nerve in the middle ear and synapse in the ganglion in the pterygopalatine fossa which supply’s the lacrimal gland

385
Q

Where does sympathetic outflow from the CNS occur and where do they pass into

A

Through the spinal segments T1 to L2 and pass into the sympathetic trunk

386
Q

Where do sympathetic fibres to the orbit arise from

A

They arise from T1

387
Q

From T1 where do the sympathetic fibres for the orbit run

A

Once in the sympathetic trunk they pass upwards through the Stellate ganglion in the base of the skull

388
Q

Where do sympathetic fibres to the orbit leave the sympathetic trunk

A

They leave the superior cervical ganglion

389
Q

What do the sympathetic fibres innervate

A

The dilator pupillae muscle and blood vessels

390
Q

What is the medial rectus innervated by

A

The oculomotor nerve

391
Q

What way does the medial rectus move the eye

A

This moves the eye inwards towards the nose- adduction

392
Q

What is the lateral rectus innervated by

A

Abducens nerve

393
Q

What way does the lateral rectus move the eye

A

Moves the eye outwards away from the nose- abduction

394
Q

What is the superior rectus innervated by

A

Oculomotor nerve

395
Q

What way does the superior rectus move the eye

A

Primarily it moves the eye upwards- elevation
Secondary it rotates the top of the eye towards the nose- intorsion
Tertiarly it moves the eye inwards- adduction

396
Q

What is the inferior rectus innervated by

A

Oculomotor nerve

397
Q

What way does the inferior rectus move the eye

A

Primarily it moves the eye downwards- depression
Secondarily it rotates the top of the eye away from the nose- extortion
Tertiary it moves the eye inward- abduction

398
Q

What is the superior oblique innervated by

A

Trochlear nerve

399
Q

What way does the superior oblique move the eye

A

Primarily rotates the top of the eye towards the nose
Secondarily moves the eye downwards- depression
Tertiarily moves the eye outwards- abduction

400
Q

What is the inferior oblique innervated by

A

Oculomotor nerve

401
Q

How does the inferior oblique move the eye

A

Primarily it rotates the type of the eye away from the nose- extortion
Secondarily it moves the eye upwards- elevation
Tertiarly it moves the eye outwards- abduction

402
Q

What is the retina

A

The posterior of the eyeball

403
Q

Where can the optic disc be found

A

The optic disc lies at the level of which the optic nerve attaches

404
Q

Where do the retinal arteries and veins come from

A

The optic disc

405
Q

Where can the macula lutea be found

A

Lateral to the optic disc

406
Q

Where is the lens found

A

In the anterior part of the eye

407
Q

Where does the ciliary processes come from

A

The lens

408
Q

Where is the iris found

A

The iris is within the anterior chamber

409
Q

When can the iris be visible

A

After the lens becomes detached

410
Q

What causes jugular Foramen syndrome

A

The compression of multiple lower cranial nerves- the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory

411
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of jugular foramen syndrome

A

Dysphonia
Loss of gag reflex
Unilateral wasting of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle

412
Q

What causes foramen magnum syndrome

A

Compression of the spinal cord, lower brain stem or part of the cerebellum

413
Q

What are signs and symptoms of foramen magnum syndrome

A

Pain in head, neck, limbs and trunk made worse be straining
Cerebellar symptoms eg-vertigo
Cardiorespiratory failure
Death

414
Q

What is Arnold-chiari malformation

A

This is a congenital malformation, where there is displacement of the cerebellar tonsils down through the foramen magnum which can block the flow of cerebrospinal fluid causing hydrocephalus

415
Q

Signs and symptoms of Arnold-Chiari malformation

A

Headaches
Fatigue
Difficulty swallowing
Dizziness

416
Q

Where is the petrous temporal bone located

A

In the floor of the middle cranial fossa

417
Q

What is the greater petrosal nerve a branch of

A

It is the parasympathetic branch of the facial nerve

418
Q

Where does the greater petrosal nerve run

A

It runs through the petrous temporal bone and passes anteromedially

419
Q

Where can the tympanic tympani be located

A

It lies lateral and posterior to the greater petrosal nerve

420
Q

What are the ear ossicles

A

Stapes, malleus and incus

421
Q

What does the tympanic membrane attach and articulate with

A

The tympanic membrane attaches to the malleus and articulates with the incus

422
Q

What is the chorda tympani nerve a branch of

A

It is a branch of the facial nerve

423
Q

What nerve crosses the tympani membrane

A

Chords tympani nerve

424
Q

What does the internal acoustic meatus do

A

It transmits the facial and vestibulocochlear nerves

425
Q

What is a acoustic neuroma

A

A benign tumour of the myelin sheath of the vestibulocochlear nerve

426
Q

What are signs and symptoms of a acoustic neuroma

A

Unilateral deafness
Dizziness
Tinnitus

427
Q

What is the midbrain divided into

A

The dorsal tectum and the ventral tegmentum

428
Q

Where is the pons located

A

The pons is located in the middle of the midbrain and the medulla

429
Q

What is the medulla oblongata a continuation of

A

The medulla oblongata is a continuation of the spinal cord within the skull

430
Q

Where does the medulla oblongata begin

A

At the foramen magnum

431
Q

Why is the medulla oblongata restricted

A

It is limited above by the caudal border of the pons and the bulbopontine sulcus

432
Q

What is the included in the dorsal tectum

A

Anything that lies dorsal to the aqueduct of the midbrain and the 4th ventricle

433
Q

What is included in the ventral tegmentum

A

Anything which lies ventral to the aqueduct of the midbrain and 4th ventricle

434
Q

What are the crus cerebri

A

2 columns of the descending fibres eg-corticospinal and corticobulbar

435
Q

Where is the bulbpontine sulcus located

A

A transverse groove which is located at the caudal border of the pons

436
Q

What runs in the basilar sulcus

A

The basilar artery

437
Q

Where are the middle cerebellar peduncles found

A

Lateral extensions of the neural tissue from the pons to the cerebellum

438
Q

Where is the anterior median fissure

A

A partial division of the medulla in the ventral midline

439
Q

What is a pyramid

A

A pyramid is an elongated eminence marking the position of underlying fibres passing from the cerebral hemisphere to the cord

440
Q

What is the decussation of the pyramids

A

This is a diagonally oriented bundles of fibres crossing the fissure via which 80% of the corticospinal fibres cross to enter the lateral white column of the spinal cord

441
Q

Where is the olive located

A

The olive is located lateral to the ventral lateral sulcus

442
Q

What is the olive

A

The olive is a eminence causes by the presence of underlying inferior olivary nucleus

443
Q

What is the function of the olive

A

Control of movement

444
Q

What is the inferior cerebellar peduncle

A

The inferior cerebellar peduncle forms the posterolateral margins of the medulla, a thick bundle of white matter passing into the cerebellum

445
Q

What is the tectum

A

This is the midbrain dorsal to the aqueduct

446
Q

What is the tectum composed of

A

Colliculi

447
Q

What is the tegmentum

A

The midbrain ventral to the aqueduct

448
Q

What is the tegmentum made up of

A

Nerve fibres entering and leaving the cerebral hemispheres and nerve nuclei

449
Q

What is the superior colliculi part of and what is its function

A

Part of the visual system and concerned with visual reflexes

450
Q

What is the inferior colliculi part of and what is its function

A

Part of the auditory system and concerned with the reflex of looking towards a loud noise

451
Q

What is the superior cerebellar peduncle

A

A fibre bundle passing from the cerebellum to the midline

452
Q

What is the pineal gland

A

This is an endocrine gland that synthesises melatonin which modulates sleep pattern in both circadian and seasonal cycles

453
Q

What is the inferior brachium

A

This conveys auditory information from the medial geniculate nucleus to the inferior colliculi

454
Q

What is the superior brachium

A

Conveys visual information back to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the superior colliculi

455
Q

What does the tegmentum of the pons contain

A

The nuclei of the abducent, facial and trigeminal cranial nerves

456
Q

What does the posterior median sulcus mark

A

The midline of the medulla oblongata

457
Q

What is the gracile tubercle

A

It is a round swelling on either side of the midline which overlies the gracile fasciculus

458
Q

What is the function of the gracile fasciculus

A

This carries fine touch, vibrations, 2-point discrimination and proprioception from the lower limb

459
Q

What is the cuneate tubercle

A

It is a swelling lateral to the gracile tubercle overlying the cuneate fasciculus

460
Q

What is the function of the cuneate fasciculus

A

This carries fine touch, vibrations, 2-point discrimination and proprioception from the upper limb

461
Q

What is the floor of the 4th ventricle

A

The rhomboid fossa

462
Q

What does the tegmentum of the medulla oblongata contain

A

The glossopharyngeal, vagus,accessory and hypoglossal

463
Q

What is Bell’s palsy

A

Acute unilateral inflammation of the facial nerve

464
Q

Is Bell’s palsy is caused by herpes zoster what may appear

A

A vesicular rash in the external auditory canal and on the oropharynx

465
Q

Signs and symptoms of Bell’s palsy

A

Pain behind the ear
Paralysis of facial muscles
Unable to close one eye
Loss of taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue

466
Q

What is bulbar palsy

A

Impairment of the functions of the cranial nerves that arise from the medulla

467
Q

What are the cranial nerves that arise from the medulla

A

Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory
Hypoglossal

468
Q

What are some signs and symptoms you can get with bulbar palsy

A

Dysphagia
Dysphonia
Absent gag reflex

469
Q

What can cause bulbar palsy

A

Motor neurone disease and guillian barre syndrome

470
Q

What is pseudobulbar palsy

A

You would present with Similar symptoms to bulbar palsy but the lesion is in the upper motor neurones caused by stroke

471
Q

What is central pontine myelinolysis

A

Destruction of the myelin in the pons

472
Q

What are signs or symptoms of central pontine myelinolysis

A

Confusion
Balance problems
Slurred speech

473
Q

When does central pontine myelinolysis occur

A

When low sodium levels are corrected too quickly

474
Q

What is the largest part of the hindbrain

A

Cerebellum

475
Q

What is the cerebellum involved with

A

Coordination of movement and balance

476
Q

What is the cerebellum comprised of

A

2 hemispheres

477
Q

what joins the 2 cerebellum hemispheres

A

The 2 hemispheres of the cerebellum are joined by the vermis in the midline

478
Q

Where does the cerebral aqueduct run

A

Through the midbrain

479
Q

What does the cerebral aqueduct do

A

Interconnects the IIIrd and IVth ventricle

480
Q

What is the red nucleus

A

A circular mass of grey matter

481
Q

Where is the red nucleus located

A

Ventral-lateral to the cerebral aqueduct

482
Q

What is the substantia nigra

A

A black band of nerve cells overlying the crus cerebri

483
Q

Where is the substantia nigra located

A

Ventro-lateral to the red nucleus on each side

484
Q

What is the vermis

A

This is a worm like ridge of tissue that connects either side of the cerebellum hemispheres

485
Q

What is the horizontal fissure

A

The horizontal fissure marks the lateral and posterior margins of the hemisphere

486
Q

What converges on the horizontal fissure

A

The fissures and folia of the superior surface curve from the postero-medial to antero-lateral onto the horizontal fissure

487
Q

What borders the anterior border

A

The primary fissure

488
Q

What borders the posterior lobe

A

Bordered by the primary fissure anteriorly and the horizontal fissure posteriorly

489
Q

What does the primary fissure mark the division of

A

The primary fissure marks the division between the anterior and posterior lobes of each cerebellar hemisphere

490
Q

What is the tonsil

A

The tonsil is a prominent rounded swelling of the cerebellar cortex anteriorly on either side of the vermis

491
Q

Where is the flocculus located

A

Ovid in shape with a crinkled edge which lies immediately posterior to the lateral foramen of the IVth ventricle on each side partly covered by choroid plexus. It lies immediately caudal to the entry point of the vestibulocochlear nerve and is crossed anteriorly by the emerging vagus nerve and the hypoglossal nerves

492
Q

What is the nodule

A

It is continuous with the flocculus via the peduncle of white matter

493
Q

What makes up the flocculo-nodular lobe

A

The flocculus and the nodule together make up this lobe

494
Q

What is the flocculo-nodular lobe involved in

A

Primarily involved with vestibular information

495
Q

What does the corticopontocerebellar do

A

Information from the primary motor cortex from the motor plan, the same information goes to the spine

496
Q

What does the vestibulocerebellar tract do

A

Carries vestibular impulses from the labyrinths directly and via the vestibular nucleus

497
Q

What does the spinocerebellar tracts do

A

Carries sensory input for balance and position

498
Q

What is the debate nucleus

A

The largest and most lateral of the deep cerebellar nuclei with major fibre bundles passing into the superior cerebellar peduncle

499
Q

What connects the cerebellum to the medulla, pons and midbrain

A

By the inferior, middle, superior cerebellar peduncles

500
Q

What is the rhomboid fossa

A

Diamond shaped floor of the IVth ventricle

501
Q

What limits the rhomboid fossa laterally and posteriorly

A

It is limited by the cerebellar peduncles laterally
It is limited by the gracile and cuneate tubercles posteriorly

502
Q

What do the gracile tubercles do

A

They carry touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the lower limbs

503
Q

What do the cuneate tubercles do

A

They carry touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the upper limb

504
Q

What does the median sulcus do

A

It divides the rhomboid fossa into triangular left and right halves

505
Q

What is the facial colliculus

A

A rounded swelling caused by the fibres of the facial nerve in the substance of the pons curving around the nucleus of thr abducens nerve at the superior fovea

506
Q

Where is the medullary striae found

A

The medullary striae is found aberrant ponto-cerebellar fibres passing from the pons to the cerebellum

507
Q

What does the medullary striae do

A

They divide the floor of the ventricle into rostral pontine half and the caudal medullary half

508
Q

Where is the locus coeruleus located

A

This is the blueish grey pigmented noradrenergic cells under the ependyma at the rostral half of the sulcus limitans

509
Q

What is the hypoglossal trig one

A

It is the medial triangular are which overlies the hypoglossal nerve nucleus

510
Q

What is the vagal trigone

A

The intermediate triangular area which overlies the vagus nerve nucleus

511
Q

What is the vestibular trigone

A

Lateral triangular area which overlies the vestibularchoclear nerve nucleus

512
Q

What is the obex

A

The inferior apex of the rhomboid fossa

513
Q

What is the area postrema

A

A small tongue shaped area immediately Rostropovich-lateral to the obex

514
Q

What is the function of the area postrema

A

This is the common site of nausea control, as it is a chemoreceptive trigger zone for the emetic response and lies outside the blood brain barrier

515
Q

What is the IIIrd ventricle

A

A narrow slit cavity lying in the midline between the two halves of the diencephalon

516
Q

What borders the IIIrd ventricle anteriorly

A

Lamina terminalis

517
Q

What borders the IIIrd ventricle superior

A

Tele choroidea

518
Q

What borders the IIIrd ventricle inferiorly

A

Optic chiasma
Pituitary stalk
Mammillary bodies
Tegmentum of the midbrain

519
Q

Where is the interventricular foramen located

A

It is located immediately behind the upper end of the column of the fornix

520
Q

What is the function of the interventricular foramen

A

Permits Cerebrospinal fluid flow from the lateral ventricles to the IIIrd ventricle.
This narrow opening is the only communication between the lateral ventricles and the rest of the ventricular system

521
Q

What is the intraventricular foramen filled with

A

Choroid plexus

522
Q

What is the paracentral lobule

A

This is a U shaped gyrus surrounding the medial extension of the central sulcus

523
Q

What does the paracentral sulcus contain

A

This contains the representations of the lower limb within the primary motor and somatic sensory areas of the cortex

524
Q

Where is the motor cortex found

A

In the pre-central gyrus

525
Q

Where is the somatic sensory cortex located

A

It is found in the post-central gyrus

526
Q

Where is the cingulate sulcus located

A

It seperates the the cingulate gyrus from the rest of the hemisphere

527
Q

Where does the cingulate sulcus run

A

Above the corpus callosum

528
Q

Where is the parieto-occipital sulcus located

A

Lies on the medial surface of the hemisphere where it forms a y-shaped arrangement with the calcarine sulcus

529
Q

Where does the calcarine sulcus run

A

It runs posterior towards the occipital pole

530
Q

What lies in the wall of the calcarine sulcus

A

The primary visual cortex

531
Q

What is the striae of Genari

A

A white band in the primary visual cortex

532
Q

What is the corpus callosum

A

A broad arched band of white matter which connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain

533
Q

What is the genu

A

The anterior curved end of the corpus callosum

534
Q

What is the rostrum

A

It is the downward connection from the genu of the corpus callosum

535
Q

What is the body of the corpus callosum

A

The body of the corpus callosum is the main curve of the band of white matter

536
Q

What is the splenium of the corpus callosum

A

The rounded posterior end of the corpus callosum

537
Q

What is the fornix

A

A bundle white matter underneath the corpus callosum

538
Q

What is the function of the fornix

A

It connects the hippocampus with the diencephalon and precommissural septum

539
Q

What is the columns of the fornix

A

Anterior and posterior extensions of the fornix

540
Q

Where do the anterior projections of the fornix go to

A

The anterior extensions go down to the mammillary bodies

541
Q

What is the anterior commissure

A

A thick bundle of white matter crossing the midline horizontally between the lamina terminalis and the fornix

542
Q

What is the septum pellucidum

A

Two thin vertical sheets made primarily of glia with a few white fibres, very sparse grey matter and a covering of ependyma at the anterior inferior border of the corpus callosum from the fornices

543
Q

What is the lamina terminalis

A

A thin sheet of ependyma and pia which extends downwards from the rostrum of the callosum and fornix to the anterior wall of the IIIrd ventricle

544
Q

Where is the thalamus

A

Dorsal part of the diencephalon

545
Q

What is the function of the thalamus

A

The thalamus is a major sub cortical relay for information ascending into the cerebral cortex

546
Q

What is a interthalmic adhesion

A

A flattered disc joining the thalami of each side behind the interventricular foramen

547
Q

What is the hypothalamic groove

A

A shallow groove on the lateral wall of the IIIrd ventricle which divides the diencephalon into dorsal and ventral parts

548
Q

What is the function of the medial geniculate nucleus

A

It relays information from the midbrain to the auditory cortex and passes some fibres via the inferior brachium to the inferior colliculi

549
Q

What is the function of the lateral geniculate nucleus

A

It relays visual information from the optic nerve to both visual cortexes via optic radiation’s and the superior colliculi via the superior brachium

550
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located

A

It is the ventral part of the diencephalon

551
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus

A

It is an important centre which contributes to the body’s homeostasis and to autonomic nervous and neuroendocrine system control

552
Q

What is the subthalamus
Location
Function

A

Ventral part of the diencephalon below the thalamus and lateral to the hypothalamus
Closely associated with the basal ganglia

553
Q

What is the preoptic area
Location
Function

A

It is found adjacent to the lamina terminalis and in front of the optic chiasma
It’s function should be considered the same as the hypothalamus

554
Q

What are the 3 different fibres found in different areas of the cortex

A

Association fibres
Commissural fibres
Projection fibres

555
Q

What are association fibres

A

They link cortical regions within one cerebral hemisphere

556
Q

What are commissural fibres

A

Link similar functional areas of the two hemispheres like the corpus callosum

557
Q

What are projection fibres

A

They link the cortex with subcortical structures such as the thalamus and the spinal cord via the internal capsule and corona radiata

558
Q

What are the functions of the commissural fibres

A

The commissural fibres between the areas of the cortex on each side containing representations of either one half of the body or one hemisphere-visual field concentrated also most entirely in the midline
Many higher functions are all contained within one hemisphere

559
Q

What happens if the corpus callosum is damaged

A

If the corpus callosum is completely divided the 2 cerebral hemispheres wont be able to communicate and so will function autonomously

560
Q

What is function of the limbic system

A

The limbic system acts as an interface between the internal environment of the individual and then external environment

561
Q

What is the limbic system essential for

A

It is essential for adaptive behaviour, emotional responsiveness and the ability to learn new responses based on pervious experiences from memory

562
Q

What is related to the limbic system

A

The olfactory system

563
Q

What are the 2 major functional roles of the limbic system

A

Role in learning
Role in regulation and translation of our emotional state into appropriate behaviour

564
Q

Where are the main parts of the limbic system located

A

The main parts of the limbic system are located on the edge or limbus of the hemisphere

565
Q

How are the main parts of the mimic system connected

A

They are connected via the papez circuit

566
Q

What does the limbic system include

A

The cingulate gyrus
The hippocampal formation
Parahippocampal gyrus
Anterior perforated substance
The septal nuclei
The uncus
The amygdala
But can include the diencephalic structures associated with the limbic cortex- structures which are on either side of the third ventricle including the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the epithalamus and the sub thalamus

567
Q

Where can the cingulate gyrus located

A

The cingulate gyrus lies immediately dorsal and parallel to the corpus callosum

568
Q

Where can the parahippocampal gyrus be found

A

It is found in continuity with the cingulate gyrus around the splenium of the corpus callosum
Found part of the temporal lobe

569
Q

What is the uncus
Where is it located
What is its function

A

The uncus is a hook shaped region of the cortex at the anterior end of the temporal lobe
The uncus plays a role in olfaction, emotions and memory

570
Q

Where is the olfactory tract located

A

The olfactory tract is located on the orbitofrontal surface of the brain

571
Q

What runs in the olfactory tract

A

Cranial nerve I

572
Q

Where can olfactory striae be located

A

Olfactory striae can be found in the olfactory tract along the anterior border of the anterior perforated substance, the fibres run medially and laterally

573
Q

Where do the lateral striae run to

A

The uncus

574
Q

Where is the column of the fornix loacted

A

The column of the fornix is found passing behind the anterior commissure

575
Q

What are association fibres

A

They are axons interconnecting different areas of the cerebral cortex of one hemisphere

576
Q

What are short association fibres for

A

Short association fibres are for the connecting the instance the cortex of neighbouring gyri

577
Q

What are long association fibres for

A

They pass between areas in different lobes of one hemisphere

578
Q

What is the largest bundle of association fibres

A

The superior longitudinal fasciculus

579
Q

Where is the corona radiate located

A

The corona radiate is located deep to the Cingulum bundle

580
Q

What is the function of the corona radiata

A

This structure carries fibres between the cortex and subcortical structures

581
Q

What are the fibres of the corona radiata continuous with

A

They are continuous with the internal capsule

582
Q

Where is the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle located

A

It curves downwards into the frontal lob from the interventricular foramen

583
Q

What are the roof and anterior wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle made up of

A

The roof and the anterior wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle are formed by the body and genu of the corpus callosum

584
Q

What is the caudate nucleus made up of

A

It has a head, body and tail

585
Q

What does the caudate nucleus form

A

It forms a large bulge into the inferno-lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the ventricle

586
Q

Where is the body of the lateral ventricle located

A

The body of the lateral ventricle is roofed over the main part of the corpus callosum

587
Q

What is the stria terminalis

A

The stria terminalis is a slender bundle of white fibres which accompany the curve of the caudate nucleus around into the temporal horn of the ventricle and connects the amygdala with the septum and hypothalamus

588
Q

Where is the lateral horn of the lateral ventricle found

A

The tail of the caudate nucleus and the stria terminalis both follow the inner curve of the ventricle and become continuous with the amygdaloid body at the tip of the inferior horn

589
Q

What is the shape of the amygdala

A

Shaped like an almond

590
Q

Where is the amygdala located

A

The amygdala overlies the medial side of the tip of the inferior horn deep to the uncus

591
Q

What is the amygdala continuous with medially and posteriorly

A

The amygdala is continuous medially with the cortex of the temporal lobe
The amygdala is continuous posteriorly with the tail of the caudate nucleus

592
Q

What is hippocampus

A

The hippocampus is a complex infolding of the cortex which forms a convex curve about 5cm long which lies medially in the floor of the inferior horn of the ventricle

593
Q

What is the pes hippocampi

A

The pes hippocampi is the anterior view of the hippocampus which has 2 or 3 shallow grooves giving a paw like appearance

594
Q

What is fimbria

A

The fimbria are efferent fibres from the hippocampus heading to the fornix

595
Q

Where is the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle located

A

The posterior horn of the lateral ventricle is seen as a variable extension of the lateral ventricle into the occipital lobe

596
Q

What could lesions in the limbic system cause

A

Lesions in the limbic system would depend on the location of the lesion to what it could cause. Any lesion could cause anterograde amnesia, generation of emotion and emotional response in the absence of external stimulation, production of inappropriate emotional responses to particular stimuli, inability to detect the emotional state of others and inability to regulate our own emotional response

597
Q

What causes hydrocephalus

A

Blockage of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles or subarachnoid space

598
Q

What could cause blockage for cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles or sub-arachnoid space

A

Blockage in the ventricles can be caused by tumours
Blockage in the sub-arachnoid space can be caused by adhesions following meningitis or trauma

599
Q

How can hydrocephalus be resolved

A

A shunt can be inserted to relieve the pressure

600
Q

How does a shunt work

A

A shunt is connected to the ventricular system which can drain the cerebrospinal fluid to the peritoneum or jugular vein

601
Q

What are signs and symptoms of hydrocephalus

A

Raised inter-cranial pressure
Headache
Unsteadiness
Mental impairment

602
Q

What is the extreme capsule

A

White matter

603
Q

What is the claustrum

A

The claustrum forms part of the basal ganglia

604
Q

What is the function of the claustrum

A

The claustrum receives and projects to the cerebral cortex in a topographically manner which have cells which can respond to visual, auditory and sensory stimuli

605
Q

What is the external capsule

A

White matter which seperates the claustrum from the putamen

606
Q

What is the lentiform nucleus comprised of

A

The laterally placed putamen and the lateral segment of the globus pallidus

607
Q

What is the lateral segment of the globus pallidus

A

Grey matter

608
Q

What is the medial medullary lamina

A

White matter found between the lateral and medial segments of the globus pallidus

609
Q

What is the medial segment of the globus pallidus

A

Grey matter

610
Q

What is the internal capsule

A

The internal capsule is the convergence and concentration of white matter projection fibres which carry all motor and sensory fibres to and from the cortex

611
Q

What is the corona radiata

A

White matter fibres radiating from the internal capsule deep to the lentiform nucleus

612
Q

What is the forceps major

A

The posterior curve of the corpus callosum fibres which run into the parietal and occipital lobes which forms about 2/3rds of a circle with the opposite side

613
Q

What is the forceps minor

A

The forceps minor is the anterior curve of the corpus callosum fibres running into the fromntal lobe which forms 2/3rds of a circle on the opposite side

614
Q

What causes Parkinson’s disease

A

Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra which leads to the depletion of striatal dopamine levels

615
Q

What is the cause of Parkinson’s disease and how can it be treated

A

Cause is usually unknown but some genetic input
Treatment with levodopa can minimise symptoms for years

616
Q

Signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

A

Cog-wheel rigidity
Pill-rolling tremor at rest
Shuffling festinant gait
Bradykinesia
Loss of facial expression

617
Q

What type of disease is Huntington’s chorea

A

An autosomal dominant disease which is inherited

618
Q

Signs and symptoms of Huntington’s chorea

A

Chorea
Personality changes
Depression and progressive dementia

619
Q

What is lacunar stroke

A

It is an occlusion of a deep perforating artery

620
Q

What are risk factors of a lacunar stroke

A

Hypertension
Smoking
Diabetes mellitus

621
Q

What can a stroke affecting the internal capsule cause

A

Hemiparesis which can typically affecting half the face, one leg and arm
Ataxia hemiparesis
Mixed sensorimotor stoke if the thalamus is affected

622
Q

What number cranial nerve is cranial nerve I

A

Olfactory

623
Q

What is the function of cranial nerve I

A

Smell

624
Q

What cranial nerve is number II

A

Optic

625
Q

What is the function of the optic cranial nerve

A

Visual/sight

626
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve III

A

Oculomotor nerve

627
Q

What is the function of the oculomotor cranial nerve

A

Eye movement
Eye lid opening
Pupil constriction

628
Q

What is the IV cranial nerve

A

Trochlear nerve

629
Q

What is the function of the trochlear nerve

A

Moves the superior oblique

630
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve V

A

Trigeminal

631
Q

The trigeminal splits in to 3 what are the 3 branches called

A

V1- ophthalmic
V2- maxillary
V3- mandibular

632
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve VI

A

Abducens nerve

633
Q

What is the function of the abducens nerve

A

The abducens nerve moves the lateral rectus

634
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve VII

A

Facial nerve

635
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve VIII

A

Vestibularcochlear nerve

636
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve

637
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve X

A

Vagus nerve

638
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve XI

A

Accessory nerve

639
Q

What is the name of cranial nerve VII

A

Hypoglossal nerve

640
Q

What type of fibres does cranial nerve I carry

A

Sensory

641
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve II carry

A

Sensory

642
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve III carry

A

Motor

643
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve IV carry

A

Motor

644
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve V carry

A

Both motor and sensory

645
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve VI carry

A

Motor

646
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve VII carry

A

Both motor and sensory

647
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve VIII carry

A

Sensory

648
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve IX carry

A

Both motor and sensory

649
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve X carry

A

Both sensory and motor

650
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve XI carry

A

Motor

651
Q

What fibres do cranial nerve XII carry

A

Motor

652
Q

What does the vertebral column consist of

A

7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
The sacrum

653
Q

What forms the sacrum

A

5 fused vertebrae and the coccyx

654
Q

What is does the coccyx consist of

A

The coccyx consist of 4 or more rudimentary vertebrae

655
Q

What is the function of the vertebral column

A

The vertebral column transmits the body weight on to the lower limbs through the sacroiliac joints

656
Q

What is found in the vertebral canal

A

The spinal cord and its coverings along with spinal nerves

657
Q

What is an individual vertebrae made up of

A

The body
The pedicle
The lamina
The spinous processes
The transverse processes
The superior and inferior articular processes

658
Q

What is important about the 7th cervical vertebrae and what is it known as

A

It is the upper most spinous process that is palpable
It is known as the vertebra prominent

659
Q

Why is the 7th cervical vertebrae known as the vertebra prominent

A

It is known as the vertebra prominent as it has a long and non-bifid spine

660
Q

What is the highest point of the iliac crest in line with on the vertebral column

A

The iliac crest is in line with the interval between L3 and L4

661
Q

What shape is the vertebral column

A

Sinusoidal shape

662
Q

When does the sinuosidal shape of the vertebral column develop

A

After birth

663
Q

What shape is the vertebral column in a foetus

A

C-shaped

664
Q

When is a secondary curvature developed in a baby

A

The cervical region develops a curvature when the child begins to hold up there head

665
Q

When does the lumbar curvature form in a baby

A

The lumbar curvature forms when the child starts to bear weight on their legs

666
Q

What are the movements of the vertebral column

A

Forward flexion 40 degrees
Extension 15 degrees
Lateral flexion 30 degrees
Rotation 40 degrees

667
Q

Where is the rotation of the vertebral column at the maximum

A

Thoracic region

668
Q

Where is rotation of the vertebral column rotation limited

A

The lumbar region

669
Q

Where is flexion and extension most limited in the vertebral column and why

A

Thoracic region due to the rib cage

670
Q

What are intervertebral discs

A

They are strong fibrocartilaginous structures that can withstand compression forces but are flexible enough to allow movement between the vertebrae

671
Q

What are the 2 parts that make up an intervertebral disc

A

A nucleus pulposus which is surrounded by an annulus fibrosis

672
Q

What is the nucleus pulposus

A

The nucleus pulposus is a well hydrated gel - proteoglycan, collagen and cartilage cells

673
Q

What is the annulus fibrosis

A

The annulus fibrosis is made of 10-12 concentric layers of collagen whose oblique arrangement alters in successive layers

674
Q

Peripherally what is the annulus fibrosis attached to

A

The vertebral bodies as well to the posterior longitudinal ligament

675
Q

What can herniation of the intervertebral disc cause

A

This can cause narrowing of the intervertebral foramen and compression of the nerve root

676
Q

What is more common in herniation of the lumbar region

A

Herniation in the lumbar region is different as the annulus fibrosis of the intervertebral disc no longer contains the nucleus pulposus and so it begins to bulge into the spinal canal or intervertebral foramina

677
Q

What prevents posterior herniation of an intervertebral disc

A

A posterior herniation is often prevented by the firm attachment of the disc to the posterior of the longitudinal ligament

678
Q

What type of herniation is more common

A

Intervertebral foramina herniation

679
Q

What can arthritis of the facet joints and/or the bony irregularities in the pedicle or vertebral body cause

A

Narrowing of the intervertebral foramen and nerve root compression

680
Q

What is radiculopathy

A

Nerve root pathology

681
Q

What is radiculopathy caused by

A

It is mot commonly caused by compression due to a prolapsed intervertebral disc

682
Q

Where is radiculopathy most commonly seen

A

L5 and S1 in the lumbar region and C6/7 in the cervical region

683
Q

What is sciatica

A

Sciatica is caused by compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve at L5

684
Q

What are signs and symptoms of sciatica

A

Pain radiating down the buttock into the leg and down to the calf
Weakness in dorsiflexion foot drop
Abnormal gait

685
Q

What is the epidural space

A

The epidural space os a space between the vertebrae and the dura mater of the spinal cord

686
Q

What does the epidural space contain

A

The space contains small arteries which supply the spinal cord, vertebral plexuses, veins in the plexuses known as Bateson veins contain no valves and communicate freely with the intercostal veins and pelvic veins including veins draining the prostate

687
Q

What is cauda equina syndrome

A

Compression of the nerve roots below the level of spinal cord termination which is L1-S5

688
Q

What is cauda equina sydrome most commonly caused by

A

Most commonly it is caused by disc prolapse at L4/5 or L5/S1

689
Q

What are common signs and symptoms of cauda equina syndrome

A

Low back pain
Perineal paraesthesia
Decreased anal tone
Bladder dysfunction
Faecal incontinence
Sciatica
Lower extremity motor and sensory loss
Sexual dysfunction

690
Q

What is a spinal cord segment

A

A spinal cord segment is an area on the spinal cord from which a pair of spinal nerves are given off

691
Q

What does the dorsal root of the spinal nerve carry

A

Sensory fibres

692
Q

What does the dorsal root ganglion house

A

The dorsal root ganglion houses the cells of origin of the dorsal root fibres

693
Q

What does the ventral root of the spinal nerve carry

A

Motor fibres

694
Q

Where does the ventral root emerge on the spinal cord

A

The ventral root emerges on the anterolateral aspect of the cord on either side

695
Q

Where do the anterior and posterior roots join

A

The anterior and posterior roots join together at the intervertebral foramen to form the spinal nerve

696
Q

When the spinal nerve emerges from the foramen what happens to it

A

When the spinal nerve emerges from the foramen and immediately divides into the anterior and posterior rami

697
Q

What do both the anterior and posterior rami contain

A

The anterior and posterior rami contain both motor and sensory fibres

698
Q

What is the cauda equina

A

The cauda equin is the lumbar and sacral nerve roots that terminate at the bottom of the spinal cord

699
Q

Where do the spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal

A

The spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen

700
Q

Anteriorly what is the intervertebral foramen bound to

A

Anteriorly the intervertebral foramen is bound by the bodies of the adjoining vertebrae and intervening intervertebral disc

701
Q

Posteriorly what is the intervertebral foramen bound to

A

Posteriorly the intervertebral foramen is bound by the synovial joints between the 2 superior and 2 inferior articular processes

702
Q

What is a spinal nerve root

A

A spinal nerve root
Each spinal nerve is formed by a dorsal and ventral nerve root

703
Q

what is the dorsal root ganglion

A

The dorsal root ganglion are cells of origin of the dorsal root fibres reside here

704
Q

What is the subarachnoid space

A

The subarachnoid space is the space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater containing cerebrospinal fluid

705
Q

Where does the spinal cord end

A

Between the interval between the first and second lumbar vertebrae

706
Q

What is the conus medullaris

A

The tapering end of the spinal cord

707
Q

What is the filum terminale

A

The filum terminale is a fibrous strand extending from the conus medullaris to the coccyx

708
Q

How can malignant tumours from breast and prostate reach the vertebrae of the spinal cord

A

These tumours can spread to the vertebrae through the vertebral venous plexuses which are connected to the veins draining these organs

709
Q

What is a lumbar puncture

A

A lumbar puncture is a needle inserted into the subdural space in L3-L4 interspace which is the intercristal plane between the highest point of iliac crests on both sides

710
Q

What would a lumbar puncture show

A

A lumbar puncture measures the opening pressure to diagnose idiopathic intracranial hypertension

711
Q

What is the treatment for idiopathic intracranial hypertension

A

Cerebrospinal fluid drained to decrease the pressure

712
Q

What can a lumbar puncture help diagnose

A

MS
Detect malignant infiltration
Diagnose infectious meningitis and encephalitis
Diagnose subarachnoid haemorrhage

Anatomy (5 decks)

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