neuro test 2

Question 1

In what way are polygraph tests a form of mind reading ?

Answer 1

lie detectors are sensitive to changes in somatic states which senses symptoms nervousness associated with telling a lie. As a result, these somatic signs can tell us that the individual is lying, thus “reading” their mind.

Question 2

In what ways are brain finger printing and fMRI scans a form of mind-reading ?

How are they similar / different from polygraphs ?

Answer 2

• brain fingerprinting uses EEG data to detect guilty knowledge. If the person has knowledge of the image in question, they will exhibit an apparent P300 wave. If they do not, the wave will be smaller. With this, the person can be shown an image of something, and if they recognize it, it means they are guilty. This reading into one’s knowledge can be a form of mind reading.
• fMRI scans the brain to locate active parts of the brain. During deception, certain parts of the brain show more activity than when answering truthfully, indicating that they are lying. By locating these active parts, one can read the mind to tell when the person is lying

[HOW SIMILAR / DIFF]

Question 3

In what ways do neuroscientific findings suggest that “general mind-reading technology” is unlikely to be viable?

Answer 3

• Technical limitations in the technology’s capabilities and accuracy
• Not enough controlled research
• essential cognitive functions alone do not suffice to ascribe decision-making capacity
• remains unclear as to how neuroscientific methods would actually apply to clinical practice

Question 4

Explain the argument behind Levy’s claim that “The most immediate ethical problem arising from these new techniques of measuring the neural correlates of mental states stems from the dangers of premature adoption” (144).

Answer 4

• due to the aura of prestige and authority that surrounds science, the tech may be gaining more weight than it deserves
• things arent as infallible as scientists may claim
• so, people will be quick to accept these results, despite criticism

Question 5

In what ways can certain psychopharmaceuticals, TMS, and even advertising be considered forms of “mind control”?

Answer 5

-psychopharmaceuticals influence mood, and therefore have effects on beliefs and behavior

• TMS affects movement choice
• They use specific marketing techniques and methods based in psychology to aim to convince us or sway us one way / manipulate
• ego depletion/ self-control is a limited resource (p. 154)

Question 6

Explain the concern that new, invasive “mind-reading” technologies might threaten our brain privacy and/or cognitive liberty.

Answer 6

• brain privacy: we have a right to privacy to what goes on inside our heads; others do not have access to our thoughts. This mind reading technology is a threat.
• freedom of thought and expression; autonomy - if mind reading affects cognitive liberty then it will threaten autonomy

Question 7

Explain Levy’s response to that argument (mind reading threat). In particular, in what way do those same concerns apply to psychological techniques?

Answer 7

• Levy claims that there are already psychological methods that threaten our brain privacy and cognitive liberty. We should be concerned about threats, but the threat is current, not just the future tech
• there are easier more covert methods to be worried about

Question 8

Explain what, according to Levy, the Ethical Parity Principle tells us about how concerned we should be over the prospect of future neuroscientific mind-reading/-control techniques relative to current techniques.

Answer 8

• current and potential methods of mind control both manipulate behavior w/o the person wanting, with both resulting in a change in beliefs.
• we do not worry about the means tho
• so, if we are concerned abt the first, than we ought to be concerned about the latter

Question 9

What is personal identity?

Answer 9

characterization: what properties and characteristics define a person as an individual

includes mental states, attitudes, and actions

Question 10

How, and to what extent, does memory play a role in shaping our personal identity?

Answer 10

mental states, attitudes, and actions

• who am I ?
• memories do not = personal identity
• we understand ourselves through narratives and experiences that shape who we are, memories are just a record of that

Question 11

Explain the concern that neuroscientific technology might eventually enable us to alter our memories (and thus our identities).

Answer 11

• the truth of memories can matter, so, memories can be valuable in guiding our self knowledge
• tech can influence our “memory-constituated identies” by allowing us to:
• delete or insert false mems
• modulate the emotional significance of memories

potential harms:
- Confabulation: inventing stories with little relation to reality
- impacts ability to recognize Self from others: affects self worth, thus our identities
- Dissociation of source from semantic memories: removes self, putting self and others in danger

C S D

Question 12

How likely is it that tech will be able to do this? In what way is the “holism of mental content” a barrier?

Answer 12

• holism of mental content: mental content is usually linked to related mental content
• ^^ is a barrier because it limits the content that can be inscribed directly into the brain, as inserted memories can mess w other ones

Question 13

In what ways are our memories currently subject to distortion/manipulation via “low tech” means?

Answer 13

Psychopharmaceuticals: influence what people think and do

Question 14

Explain the tension between considerations of autonomy and harm that Levy suggests would arise were scifi-esque mind-altering technology developed. How does he conclude that the use of such technology would “usually be permissible”

Answer 14

Considerations of harm to others, can constrain our autonomy, only in the case when harm is substantial.

Changing one’s own mind can affect others as well, as our self identities impact that of others. However, the other person is free to alter their individual minds, so, the use of this tech would “usually be permissible”

Question 15

Explain how propranolol could be used to prevent PTSD. Explain the arguments for/against this use of propranolol. (Be sure to discuss the concerns about propranalol’s effect on moral judgment.)

Answer 15

Argument for: PTSD is harmful for a person to experience, and harmful to people around them. Harms society. So, this drug is good as it can regulate the negative aspects of PTSD that hurt the person and society

Argument against: Preventing people from learning and growing from traumatic experiences, foment risky behavior due to messing with moral judgment

Question 16

According to the UDDA, when is someone dead?

Answer 16

UDDA: “Any individual who has sustained either
(1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or
(2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brainstem, is dead.

A determination of death must be made in accordance with accepted medical standards.”
1 = cardiopulmonary criterion
2 = whole-brain criterion

A Determination of Death must be made in accordance with accepted medical standards

Question 17

What technological advances motivated the development of a conception of “brain death”? How is organ donation also relevant?

Answer 17

Circulation & respiration can be mechanically maintained for limited period of time
- Mechanical Ventilation + other advances → When does death occur if patients can be kept breathing despite experiencing unresponsive wakefulness?

Organ Donation
Time constraints on organ harvesting
- The “Dead Donor Rule” (DDR) lies at the heart of current organ procurement policy. [10] It is not a legal statute; rather, it reflects the widely held belief that it is wrong to kill one person to save the life of another. On those grounds, an organ donor must already be dead before vital organs are removed.

Question 18

Why has the use of the word “irreversible” in the UDDA been questioned? Why have some argued that “permanent” ought to replace “irreversible”?

Answer 18

Permanence: a function has stopped, but it could be restarted → there is a choice to restart

Irreversibility: a function is stopped and nothing can be done about it (even medical intervention)

this is:
- philosophically muddy
- excludes other potential reversible conditions
- death in medicine is non-biological, which is incongruent with the legal definition
- not complying w the irreversible standard is a crime. however, permanent unconsiousness and prolonged apnea are allowed to kill person. so we already doing this
- yes to permanent because consciouness is needed to be a human

Question 19

know those criteria

Answer 19

1. absent Brainstem reflex
2. positive Apnea test
3. optional Neuroimaging
4. clear Etiology of condition; Elimination of confounding factors
5. Coma

BAN E C

Question 20

What (relatively) recent neuroscientific findings do the authors discuss, and in what ways do those findings call into question the clinical standards by which we determine that a patient is dead according to neurological criteria

Answer 20

1. latent and covert awareness can persist in the injured brain in the absence of behavioral motor responses to external stimuli
   - concerns with heart-beating organ procurement
   - residual awareness in donors jeapordizes public trust in organ donation process
2. motor reflexes cannot be used to establish the presence or absence of higher integrative functions of the “cerebral cortex”
   - part of clinical bedside examination for death determination
   - those with ischemic penumbra experience clinical manifestations of brain death w no signs of irreversible damage
3. there are confounding factors that may lead to a false-positive apnea test (thus false determination of BD)
4. irreversibility is established by excluding other potential reversible conditions, but the criteria ignore “the most important factor for reversibility”, time from injury “to the potential recovery of conscious awareness”

The way that we measure conscious awareness, is by behavioral manifestations. If these tech showcase that some who are conscious, may not be able to have behavioral markers.

those who do not have motor function, may still have conscious awareness

someone might not be able to breathe, for other reasons then brain related deficit

not leaving people on support and giving time for brains to recover : could be reversible
clinical tests are not accurately testing for brain dead

Question 21

What are the four criteria a patient must meet in order to have decision-making capacity (DMC)?

Answer 21

1. makes and Communicates a choice
   (verbal or nonverbal)
2. Understand pertinent information and appreciates its relevance
   (understand– receives and retains info; appreciate– see how the info applies to them)
3. decision is consistent with Values and goals
4. patient uses Reasoning to make a choice (have considered how this will affect their life plans and explain it)

CU V R

Question 22

how is DMC connected to informed consent

Answer 22

After the physician disclosures relevant medical information, the patient must have DMC before they are considered to be able to give “voluntary authorization” for a physician to proceed with a proposed medical intervention

Question 23

In what way is DMC “decision-specific”?

Answer 23

a patient has decisional capacity to make a specific medical decision, at a specific point in time, and under specific conditions

ex: patient can consent to x-ray, but not surgery

Question 24

In what way is DMC a “continuum”?

Answer 24

1. no clear or constant threshold above which the patient has DMC and below which they do not
2. DMC can come and go over pt’s lifetime, or even in one single hospital stay

Question 25

Peterson’s suggestion that structural/functional changes in the brain might be predictive of DMC.

Answer 25

• behavioral data: positive correlation btwn vocab comprehension and DMC. poor performance on memory tests and poor understanding / reasoning
• neurocognitive data: correlation btwn understanding and changes in brain regions. metabolic abnormalities correlated with deficiencies in understanding / reasoning

Question 26

What three potential clinical uses does Peterson envision for neurocognitive data, as it relates to DMC?

Answer 26

1. compensatory info for patients whose cognitive impairment or communication deficts preclude full participation in standard assessment methods
2. to aide in the development of new / better clinical assessment tools
3. to aide in the development of methods to enhance the DMC of certain clinical populations

replace
help
enhance

Question 27

Explain Peterson’s argument that the principle of respect for autonomy and the principle of justice suggest that we should use neuroscience to inform judgments of DMC?

Answer 27

1. the principle of respect for autonomy obligates physicians to allow and enable patients to make autonomous choices
2. the principle of justice obligates physicians to treat patients equitably