Neuro-Psych Midterm 1 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
1
Q

Neuropsychology

A

The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior
It draws information from many disciplines, such as biology and physiology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Human Neuropsychology

A

How the brain (and nervous system) influence human behavior, cognition, and emotions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

IMPORTANCE OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

A

Studies which area of the brain is associated with specific cognitive domains
- Can use lesion studies

Examines what happens to the brain with age and disease
- Examining development over time and different diseases (Alzheimer’s, autism)

Has implications in various fields
- Occupational therapy
- Education (IEP)
- Speech language pathology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Trepanation

A

The earliest evidence of interest in the brain comes from skulls with burr holes.

May have been used for relieving pressure, treating headaches, or mental disorders.
- Thought to be used to release “evil spirits”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Phrenology

A

Reading a skull to determine what type of characteristic traits or personality someone had.

Procedure: Felt for bumps or ridges

Problem: based on race/ethnicity bumps might be different, so this led to racism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Classic studies of neuropsychology

A
  1. Amnesia patients
  2. Split-brain patients
  3. Blindsight patients
  4. Lesion studies
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Amnesia

A

Natural or surgical lesions in the medial temporal lobe that affected the ability to form and recall new memories.

Importance: Allowed researchers to identify the specific brain structures essential for memory (Temporal lobe associated to long term memory)

→ Showed that there are different types of memory

→ Provided evidence for memory consolidation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Split Brain

A

Involves surgically cutting the corpus callosum in people with epilepsy.

Importance: Lateralization/cerebral asymmetry:
○ Left hemisphere = involved with speaking
○ Right hemisphere = not involved with speaking

→ This work highlighted the importance of both hemispheres in cognition
→ Revealed that each hemisphere can independently perceive and process information
→ Showed how the two hemisphere communicate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Blindsight

A

Patients with damage to the visual cortex, resulting in loss of conscious visual perception in parts of their visual field.
○ Often result of a stroke

→ The information is still processed by other areas of the visual system that are still intact.

Importance: Provided valuable information of the association of vision and consciousness with the human brain.

→ Helped map visual pathways
→ Improved our understanding of brain plasticity
→ Provided insight for the study of consciousness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Lesion Studies

A

People who have damage to one hemisphere showed differing functional abilities.

Importance: These studies showed the specialized function of the cerebral hemispheres
→ Right hemisphere = drawing, puzzles, spatial skills, and navigation
→ Left hemisphere = language functions, reading, naming, arithmetic, control of voluntary movements

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

The job of neuropsychologists

A
  1. Expert diagnosticians
  2. Characterize cognitive strengths and weaknesses
  3. Link 1 & 2 to:
    a. Select appropriate interventions
    b. Estimate patient outcomes
    c. Set goals
    d. Direct to proper services
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

The brain is protected by the skull while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

Fibers that carry information to and away from the CNS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

A

The part of the PNS associated with sensory and motor pathways

Has two parts:
1. Sensory pathways that bring information into the CNS (eg. skin receptors)(afferent)
- cannot be repaired

  1. Motor pathways that connect the brain and spinal cord to muscles (sending info out = efferent)
    - can be repaired
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

Subdivision of the PNS where the sensory and motor pathways influence the muscles of our internal organs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Dorsal

A

structures atop or within brain
- also known as superior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Medial

A

structures toward brainʼs midline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Lateral

A

structures located toward sides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Ventral

A

structures toward bottom of brain
- also known as inferior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Anterior

A

front

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Posterior

A

back

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Coronal slice

A

frontal view

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Horizontal slice

A

dorsal view

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Sagittal slice

A

medial view

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Brain looks wrinkled with?

A
  • clefts - can be fissure or sulcus

→ lateral fissures are deep enough to hit the ventricles; separates frontal and temporal lobe

→ central sulcus are not deep enough to hit the ventricles; separates frontal from parietal

  • ridges - gyri
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Frontal lobe

A

executive functioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Parietal lobe

A

goal orientated movement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Temporal lobe

A

hearing, language, and music (encoding memory)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Occipital lobe

A

visual processing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Motor cortex

A

plan and control voluntary movements
- part of frontal lobe

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

sensory information
- part of pareital lobe

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Forebrain

A
  • Contains the cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum), basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus
  • Involved with many functions including mental activities, movement, emotion, and behaviors
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Basal ganglia

A

involved with motor movements, executive functions, behavior, and emotions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Limbic system

A

involved with many functions like memory, emotions, and behavior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Diencephalon

A

Contains the:
1. Hypothalamus
- Controls the body’s hormone production
- Temperature regulation, feeding, sexual behavior, sleeping, emotional behavior, and movement

  1. Thalamus
    - Channels sensory information travelling to the cerebral cortex from all sensory systems
36
Q

The Midbrain

A

Contains neural circuits for:
- Hearing
- Seeing
- Orientating movements
- Pain perception functions

37
Q

The Hindbrain

A

Cerebellum: plays a role in motor coordination, motor learning, and maintaining body equilibrium

Reticular formation: involved with sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal

Pons & medulla oblongata: controls vital body movements

38
Q

The Brainstem

A

The bottom of the brain which connects the brain to the spinal cord

Regulates body functions & controls balance

Consists of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Reticular formation runs through it

39
Q

Cerebral Connections

A

There are four main type of connections between regions:
1. Projections between one lobe and another
2. Projections within a lobe
3. Interhemispheric connections
4. Connections through the thalamus

40
Q

CEREBRAL MATERIAL

A

gray matter & white matter

41
Q

gray matter

A
  • cerebral cortex (outer-most layer)
  • folds in brain increase gray matter - more area for information and cognitive processing
  • 40% of brain
  • consists of nerve cell bodies (dendrites and axon terminal)
42
Q

white matter

A
  • deeper within brain (subcortical)
  • 60% of brain
  • made up of myelin and bundles of axons
    • fatty molecule that provides insulation for axon
  • involved in signal transmission
43
Q

VENTRICLES

A

four ventricles are connected:
1. left lateral ventricle
2. right lateral ventricle
3. third ventricle
4. fourth ventricle

44
Q

VENTRICLES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

A

ventricles and subarachnoid space are filled with CSF
- CSF cushions brain and spinal cord, washes out waste, and delievers
nutrients

45
Q

Ventricles are measure of atrophy

A
  • loss of brain volume
  • brain shrinkage → larger ventricles
46
Q

CEREBRAL ASYMMETRY

A

both hemispheres are responsible for different functions

right and left hemispheres operate on contralateral sides of body

47
Q

Cerebral lateralization

A

left hemisphere:
- language processing
- arithmetic
- analytical thinking

right hemisphere:
- visuospatial processing
- emotional processing
- holistic thinking

48
Q

Cerebral asymmetry differences

A
  • schizophrenia: reduced brain asymmetry (causes auditory hallucinations)
  • dyslexia: bilateral language dominance
  • handedness: left-handed individuals show bilateral language dominance
  • sex differences: females show stronger left-sided language lateralization
49
Q

SPINAL CORD

A

Extends from the bottom of the medulla
31 segments with spinal nerves
Supported by vertebra

50
Q

Three main functions of the spinal cord

A
  1. Act as a pathway for impulses going to and from the brain
  2. Control automatic reflexes without consulting the high brain centers
  3. Control body movement and functions
51
Q

Cranial nerves

A

12 pairs of cranial nerves in brain:

key part of nervous system - somatic nervous system

sense and motor impulses
- help you make facial expressions, move your eyes and process smells

52
Q

Spinal nerves

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves:

facilitate voluntary motor control, sensory perception, and reflex responses

53
Q

SPINAL NERVE CONNECTIONS

A

Posterior root: brings in sensory information

Anterior root: sends out motor information

White-matter: carries information to and from the brain

Branches: sensory neurons may influence motor neurons (e.g., spinal reflex arc)

54
Q

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM- Sympathetic & parasympathetic

A

sympathetic division:
- body arousal
- fight-or-flight response

parasympathetic division:
- rest-and-digest

55
Q

Electrical Messages

A

Also known as action potentials convey information form one area to another

56
Q

Action potential steps

A
  1. neurons have resting potential (70mV)
  2. when threshold is reached (50mV), it becomes depolarized
  3. depolarization causes electrical spike
  4. membrane is then repolarized
  5. hyperpolarization occurs when neuron is in refractory period
    - neuron is unable to be stimulated again
  6. wave of action potential travels down axon
57
Q

ELECTRICAL TO NEUROCHEMICAL MESSAGES

A
  • synapses carry either excitatory or inhibitory messages
  • involved with breathing, heart rate, cognition, and sleep
58
Q

Presynaptic
membrane

A

encloses molecules that transmit chemical messages

59
Q

Postsynaptic membrane

A

contains receptor molecules that receive chemical messages

60
Q

Postsynaptic receptor

A

site to which a neurotransmitter molecule binds

61
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

small space separating presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic dendritic spine

62
Q

NEUROTRANSMISSION STEPS

A
  1. synthesis: neurotransmitters are transported from cell nucleus to terminal buttons
  2. release: transmitter is released across membrane by exocytosis
  3. receptor action:
    transmitter crosses synaptic cleft and binds to receptor
  4. inactivation:
    transmitter is taken back into terminal or inactivated in synaptic cleft
63
Q

NEUROTRANSMITTER CLASSES - three classes of neurotransmitters

A
  1. small-molecule transmitters: derived from food breaks down acetylcholine (ACh), amines, and amino acids
  2. neuropeptide transmitters: made through translation of mRNA from instruction in neurons DNA
  3. transmitter gases: synthesized in cell as needed
64
Q

SMALL - MOLECULE NEUROTRANSMITTERS

A

Acetylcholine
Amines
Amino Acids

65
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Essential for communication between motor neurons and muscle fibers

Key for “rest and digest”

Involved with learning and memory, arousal, and attention

66
Q

Amines

A

Dopamine* – plays a role in movement, attention and learning, and in behaviors that are reinforcing

Serotonin* – involved with mood regulation, aggression, appetite, arousal, pain perception, and respiration

Norepinephrine – involved with alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response

Epinephrine – also involved with the stress response

67
Q

Amino Acids

A

Glutamate (Glu) – involved with learning and memory, motor function, pain perception, neuropsychiatric disorders

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) – associated with stress & anxiety, mood, sleep, and pain perception

Histamine – controls arousal and waking, and constriction of smooth muscles

68
Q

NEUROTRANSMITTER CLASSES - BEHAVIOUR EFFECTS

A

cholinergic system (ACh)
- involved with waking behaviour, attention, and memory

dopaminergic system (dopamine)
- involved with coordinating movement, addiction, and mood regulation

noradrenergic system (NE)
- involved with emotions, hyperactivity and ADHD, and learning

serotonergic system (5-HT)
- involved with wakefulness, learning, depression, and schizophrenia

69
Q

Anatomical Techniques

A
  1. x-ray (bones)
    - conventional radiography - pneumoencephalography - angiography
    - computed tomography (CT)
  2. magnetic resonance imagine (MRI) (diagnosing conditions)
    - structural MRI (sMRI)
    - diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
    - magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)
70
Q

Conventional Radiography

A

X-rays pass through the skull (or body)

A shadowy image shows locations of different tissues (brain tissue = light grey, bone tissue = white)

Radiography is still used for examining the skull for fractures and the brain for gross abnormalities

This method is not the primary method for visualizing brain abnormalities

71
Q

Pneumoencephalography

A

Advances traditional x-ray by taking advantage of the fact that x-rays are not absorbed by air

A small amount of CSF is removed from the spinal cord and replaced with air (spinal tap)

X-ray is taken as the air moves up the spinal cord and into the brain

Ventricles stand out because of the air

72
Q

Pneumoencephalography advantages and disadvantages

A

Advantages:
- shows blockages and abnormalites
- brain tumors, hydrocephalis

Disadvantages:
- very invasive and painful
- high potential for morbidity and mortality

73
Q

Angiography

A

A method for imaging blood vessels
- check how the blood is flowing through the brain and the health of the vessels

A substance that is absorbed by x-rays is injected into the bloodstream

Can be painful and dangerous

74
Q

Computed Tomography (CT)

A

A narrow x-ray beam goes through the same object at many angles
- get a 3D image, and briefly exposed to radiation

The CT scan can localize brain tumors and lesions as they come up darker

Skull is white, grey and white matter are similar, and ventricles are dark

75
Q

Computed Tomography advantage

A

In cases of brain trauma it’s much better than conventional radiology, you can see the ventricles and everything more clearly

76
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

A

A large magnet and a radiofrequency pulse generate a signal through the brain that produces an image

A hydrogen atoms nucleus consists of a single proton that align in the magnet. When many align in the same direction and can be summed

Proton density varies in different brain tissue therefore electrical currents differ depending on the tissue being examined

CFS, myelin, non-myelin atoms: all have different degrees of hydrogen atoms to allow use to see the different colours in the scan

Con: Patients Cannot go in scanner if have unremovable piercings or implanted metal though

77
Q

Alzheimer’s MRI

A

much larger ventricles, a lot more black space = less overall brain volume

78
Q

1.5T vs 3T vs 7T?

A

The number (e.g., 1.5) represents the strength of the magnetic fields
- 1.5T is the most common and widely available
- 7T is great for cutting-edge research but is not widely available
- 7T: good for seeing different sub-divisions, gives clear and crisp image

79
Q

T1-weighted vs T2-weighted

A

T1w is great anatomical detail
- focuses more on the structure

T2w is great for detecting fluid-filled structures and edema
- focuses on the fluid (CFS build up in the frontal regions)

80
Q

MRI vs CT scans

A

MRI
- CANT HAVE IT: People with pace-makers or cochlear implants
- MRI takes longer: on average 30 mins
- Common reasons for MRI: neurological conditions, headaches, trouble with vision, joint injury

CT
- CANT HAVE IT: Pregnant woman because of radiation for fetus, people under the age of 30
- 5-10 mins is length of the exam for most people
- Common uses: look at the head if people have chronic headaches, abdominal pain

81
Q

Main difference between MRI and CT

A

Main difference is MRI uses strong magnetic filed to generate an imagine, CT uses radiation that generates through the body and is processed

82
Q

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A

Detects the movements of water molecules to create virtual images of the brains nerve fiber pathways

A magnetic field is used to detect this water diffusion

Water molecules in nerve fibers follow the tract orientation moving in the direction of its longitudinal axis

83
Q

DTI continued

A

Water molecules and nerve fibres are in the myelin, which allows us to see where the white matter is (the connections)

Different colours represent different representations

This method allows researchers and clinicians to study the structural connectivity between different brain regions and understand the organization of neural pathways

DTI can detect abnormalities in neural pathways and identify changes in fiber myelination

Has low signal-to-noise ratio

Arcuate pathway allows us to speak coherently
- If we have decreases in myelin (damage to the pathway) we might be slower at processing

84
Q

DTI outcome measures

A

Fractional Anisotropy (FA) - reflects the directionality of water diffusion/displacement

Higher FA: more organized and coherent tracks (it’s good) (brighter colour)
- Brain regions are being connected at a higher rate
Low FA: potential tissue damage or disruption to the tracks

Mean diffusivity (MD) - reflects the average magnitude of water diffusion/displacement

High MD: is bad because there is a lot more water in the brain which can reflect swelling, inflammation and loss of neurons

Low MD: is good

85
Q

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

A

Another MRI method to examine brain development, function, and disease

Used to look at the different metabolites in the brain
- NAA- most common metabolite: often observed where there’s neuronal loss

MRS varies the radiofrequency used for aligning the hydrogen protons

Can detect:
- Abnormalities in brain metabolism
- Brain-cell loss in degenerative disease
- Loss of myelin in demyelinating disease such as multiple sclerosis

Has limited special resolution and requires high concentration of the metabolite of interest to be reliably detected

86
Q

Functional Techniques

A

Brain’s electrical activity
- Electroencephalography (EEG)
- Event-related potentials (ERPs)

Dynamic Brain imaging
- Position emission tomography (PET)
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- Optical tomography

Brain’s magnetic activity
-Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

87
Q
A