Midterm 1: chapter 1

Question 1

What is Social Psychology

Answer 1

Scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.

Question 2

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 2

The “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

Key Concept: After an event occurs, people often believe they predicted the outcome, even if they were unsure beforehand.

Relevance: Important to guard against hindsight bias in social psychological research.

Question 3

What are the key focus areas of Social Psychology?

Answer 3

Thoughts about others.
Feelings toward others.
Behaviors toward others.

Question 4

the “Real or Imagined presence”

Answer 4

focuses on each person’s
perceptions of the other, a critical factor is what each person believes about the other.

Question 5

Real Presence

Answer 5

The influence of another person’s actual presence, e.g., hearing a parent’s voice over the phone.

Question 6

Imagined Presence

Answer 6

How behavior changes based on imagined perceptions, e.g., acting differently because you think your partner is upset

Question 7

Personality psychology AKA individual differences psychology

Answer 7

Identifying ways people are both similar and different (unique).

Question 8

Key Aspects of Personality Psych

Answer 8

Personality traits are stable across situations.
Traits are internal to the person and influence thoughts, feelings, and actions.
“How we are like all others, some others, and no others.”

Question 9

Sociology

Answer 9

Studies society at the group level, focusing on interactions among individuals and broader societal events (e.g., health disparities among socioeconomic groups).

Question 10

The Emergence of Social Psychology

Answer 10

Norman Triplett (1898): Conducted the first social psychology experiment on social facilitation, showing that people perform better when others are present.

Max Ringelmann (1913): Studied social loafing, showing that individuals perform worse in groups on simple tasks.

Question 11

“Founders” of Social Psychology

Answer 11

● Kurt Lewin: Introduced the interactionist perspective, emphasizing that behavior results from the interaction between person and environment.

● Floyd Allport: Studied group influence and social influence.

● George Allport: Founder of
personality psychology and president of APA (1939-1943).

Question 12

Post-WWII Surge in Social Psychology

Answer 12

Solomon Asch: Famous for conformity experiments.

Stanley Milgram: Studied obedience to authority.

Muzafer Sherif: Known for research on social norms and conflict resolution.

Question 13

Contact Hypothesis & Prejudice

Answer 13

Gordon Allport (1954): Explored intergroup relations.

Contact Hypothesis: Suggests that prejudice between groups can be reduced through cooperation and the pursuit of common goals.

Question 14

Social Facilitation

Answer 14

People perform better when they are in the presence of others (Norman Triplett).

Question 15

Social Loafing

Answer 15

People perform worse on simple tasks when working in groups (Max Ringelmann).

Question 16

Conformity

Answer 16

Changing behavior to match others’ expectations or behaviors (Solomon Asch).

Question 17

Obedience

Answer 17

Following orders or instructions from authority figures (Stanley Milgram).

Question 18

Key Ethical Principles in Social Psychology

Answer 18

Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study before participation.

Deception: Allowed only if justifiably necessary and approved by an ethics board.

Minimize Harm: Avoid causing harm, such as emotional distress, during experiments.

Confidentiality: Ensure personal data is protected.

Debriefing: Fully inform participants of what happened during the study. Specifically used to reveal a deception if one took place in a study

Freedom to Withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.

Question 19

Ways of gathering information

Answer 19

○ Archival data
○ Observation
○ Questionnaires
○ Experiments

Question 20

Archival Data

Answer 20

Use of existing data (e.g., crime rates, census data) to describe past behaviors.

Question 21

Observation

Answer 21

Naturalistic: Observe behaviors in a real-world setting without participants’ knowledge.

Laboratory: More controlled environment but may sacrifice realism.

Field Experiments: Natural settings with some manipulation, often without consent until after data is collected.

Question 22

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 22

Definition: Observing and recording behavior in a natural setting.

Advantages: Realistic context and natural behavior.

Risks: Lack of control over extraneous variables and randomness.

Example: Observing customer behavior in public spaces (but not in homes or businesses).

Question 23

Laboratory Observation

Answer 23

Definition: Controlled observation in a lab environment.

Advantages: Greater control over variables like temperature, lighting, and distractions.

Risks: May lack realism compared to real-world settings.

Use of Trained Observers: Increases inter-observer reliability but poses a risk of observer bias.

Question 24

Observer Bias

Answer 24

observer is more attentive for behaviors they expect to
find, fail to notice behaviors they don’t expect.

Question 25

Hawthorne effect

Answer 25

participants’ awareness may cause them to
change their behavior.

Question 26

Questionnaire Method

Answer 26

Uses: Common in correlational designs and experiments.

Problems: Dishonesty, random responding, socially desirable answers.

Solutions: Reverse-scored items, triangulation, and social desirability measures.

Question 27

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS)

Answer 27

Purpose: Measures socially desirable responding.

Format: 33 true or false questions.

Example Items:
- “My table manners at home are always as good as in a restaurant.”
- “I never hesitate to help someone in trouble.”

Application: Detects whether participants respond in a socially desirable manner.

Question 28

Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR)

Answer 28

Part 1 (Self-Deception Enhancement):
Measures overconfidence and self-perception.
Example: “My first impressions of people usually turn out to be right.”
Part 2 (Impression Management):
Measures social approval motives.
Example: “I sometimes drive faster than the speed limit” (reverse scored).

Question 29

Demand characteristics

Answer 29

The unintentional cues within the research setting/design that may inadvertently guide
participants’ behaviour

• Leading to response bias because the participant may be trying to “help you out”

Question 30

Explicit measures

Answer 30

Explicit attitudes are conscious, deliberative, and controllable
* Typically assessed directly through questionnaires
* But can be subject to socially-desirable responding

Question 31

Implicit measures

Answer 31

Implicit attitudes are attitudes that are unintentionally activated by the mere presence (actual or symbolic) of the attitude object
* Typically unconscious/automatic thoughts
* Implicit attitudes develop through repeated pairings of a category (gender, race, ethnicity, etc.) and an evaluation (a positive or negative emotional
connotation)

Question 32

Implicit Association Test

Answer 32

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures attitudes and beliefs that people may be unwilling or unable to report. The IAT may be especially interesting if it shows that you have an implicit attitude that you did not know about

Faster responses indicate that the participant is able to easily
sort/classify the target into one of the two categories/groupings

Question 33

Measuring Implicit Attitudes

Answer 33

If the speed of categorization is faster for one set of pairings versus the other set of pairings, then this would indicate an implicit bias

If the speed of categorization is similar for both sets – then this
indicates a potential lack of bias

Question 34

Mundane realism

Answer 34

the extent to which an experiment is similar to situations encountered in everyday life. Is the study analogous to real- world situations?
* The study does not necessarily have to be exactly like a real-world situation, it can be an artificial situation.

Question 35

Experimental realism

Answer 35

an experiment is realistic if the situation is involving to the participant, if they are forced to take it seriously, if it has
an impact on them

Question 36

Psychological realism

Answer 36

the extent to which the psychological processes that occur in an experiment are the same as psychological processes that
occur in everyday life.

Question 37

Culture

Answer 37

• A set of cognitive and evaluative beliefs – beliefs about what is or what ought to be – that are shared by the members of a social system and transmitted to new members. (House, 1981)
• The set of socially transmittable information in a population, which can influence cognition, affect, and behaviour. (Kashima, Bain, & Perfors,
  2019)
• Culture is to society what memory is to individuals. (Kluchhohn, 1954)

Question 38

Cross-cultural psychology

Answer 38

Goal: Understand similarities and differences in psychological functioning across various cultures.

Question 39

Etic Approach

Answer 39

Studies behavior from an outsider’s perspective, comparing different cultures based on universal criteria.

Question 40

Cross-cultural methods

Answer 40

Method: Transfer, Test, and Discovery Procedure:

Transfer: Select psychological principles or models effective in one culture.

Test: Test these principles in other cultures to see if they generalize.

Discovery: Identify new factors or elements that emerge in different cultures.

Example: Testing the concept of individualism in Western vs. Eastern cultures, where Eastern societies may show a greater focus on collectivism.

Question 41

Cultural Influences on Psychology

Answer 41

Culture influences how we perceive the world, what we pay attention to, and how we interpret social cues.

Perception and Cognition: Culturally developed conventions influence which elements of the environment we prioritize. For example, some cultures focus more on group harmony, while others emphasize individual achievement.
(Triandis, 2001)

Question 42

Cultural Psychology: Three Main Goals

Answer 42

Goal 1: Characterize cultural meanings and practices along with their related psychological structures and processes.

Goal 2: Discover underlying systematic principles that create culturally patterned sociality and psychology.

Goal 3: Explore how culture and psychological processes shape each other in a feedback loop.

Example: In collectivist cultures, cultural practices supporting group harmony foster psychological tendencies like conformity, which in turn strengthen the culture’s norms.

Question 43

Indigenous Psychology

Answer 43

A psychology developed within a specific cultural context by scholars from that context, for the benefit of people within that context. It emphasizes context-specific knowledge rather than universal principles.

Question 44

Emic Approach:

Answer 44

Involves studying behavior from within the culture, without imposing external frameworks. This contrasts with cross-cultural psychology’s etic approach.

Question 45

Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture (1980, 2001)

Answer 45

• Power Distance
• Uncertainty Avoidance
• Individualism vs collectivism
• Masculinity vs femininity

Question 46

Power Distance

Answer 46

Power Distance: How much a society accepts that power is distributed unequally.

High Power Distance: Cultures where hierarchy and unequal power are accepted (e.g., India).
Low Power Distance: Cultures that value equality and minimize hierarchy (e.g., Denmark).

Question 47

Uncertainty Avoidance

Answer 47

Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree of discomfort in ambiguous or unstructured situations.

High Uncertainty Avoidance: Cultures that prefer clear rules and structure (e.g., Greece).
Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Cultures more comfortable with ambiguity and risk-taking (e.g., Singapore).

Question 48

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Answer 48

Individualism vs. Collectivism: Degree to which individuals prioritize personal goals vs. group goals.

Individualist Cultures: People are self-reliant and prioritize personal achievement (e.g., USA).
Collectivist Cultures: People prioritize the group’s well-being and maintain loyalty to family or clan (e.g., Japan).

Question 49

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Answer 49

Masculinity vs. Femininity: Degree of gender role differentiation and emphasis on achievement.

Masculine Cultures: Emphasize achievement, assertiveness, and material success (e.g., Japan).
Feminine Cultures: Emphasize care, quality of life, and nurturing roles (e.g., Sweden).

Question 50

Triandis’s Cultural Syndromes

Answer 50

1. Complexity-Simplicity
2. Tightness-Looseness
3. Collectivism-Individualism

Question 51

Complexity-Simplicity

Answer 51

Complex Cultures: Characterized by urbanization, wealth, and a variety of social roles and choices. These societies, such as the USA or Japan, tend to promote individualism, where personal goals and independence are valued.
Simple Cultures: Found in less urbanized, rural settings. These cultures, such as some traditional hunter-gatherer societies, tend to emphasize conformity and collectivism, where group goals and interdependence are prioritized.

Question 52

Tightness-Looseness

Answer 52

Tight Cultures: Strong norms and strict enforcement of conformity. People are punished for even minor deviations from norms. Common in isolated societies with a high degree of interdependence, like Japan.

Tight cultures are typically collectivist, with clear roles and expectations.

Loose Cultures: More tolerant of deviations from norms. These cultures are often heterogeneous and influenced by neighboring cultures, as seen in countries like the USA and Australia. Population density is lower, and members have greater independence.

Question 53

Collectivism-Individualism

Answer 53

Collectivist Cultures: Individuals are strongly connected to their in-groups (family, tribe, nation). Prioritization is given to group goals over personal goals. Interdependence, belongingness, and social obligations are central.

Focus: Relationships, empathy, loyalty, and hierarchy. The person’s self-concept is defined in relation to others.

Child Rearing: Conformity, obedience, and security are emphasized. Children are raised with a strong sense of duty and interdependence.

Example: Caretakers in collectivist cultures, like in China, model rules of interdependence and focus on harmonious relationships. Mothers often make decisions for their children based on what’s best for the family, rather than encouraging individual choice.

Individualist Cultures: Emphasize independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement. Individuals are seen as autonomous, with internal attributes like talents and personality traits defining them.

Focus: Achievement, personal distinction, and self-expression. The person is considered “free” and separate from others.

Child Rearing: Emphasis on independence, exploration, and self-reliance. Children are encouraged to make their own decisions and develop unique abilities.

Example: In the USA, children are encouraged to sleep in their own beds, and their milestones (like walking or speaking) are celebrated as individual accomplishments.

Question 54

Child Rearing Practices Across Cultures

Answer 54

Individualist Cultures: Focus on developing the child as an independent agent. Children are often encouraged to do things on their own, and achievements that distinguish them from others are celebrated.

Example: In the USA, parents ask children to explain causes of situations in pictures, promoting individual analysis.

Collectivist Cultures: Focus on the child’s role within the group, emphasizing harmonious relationships and social responsibilities.

Example: In Japan, mothers ask children to focus on the feelings of others in pictures, promoting relational understanding.

Question 55

Conflict Resolution

Answer 55

Collectivist Cultures: People prefer methods that maintain relationships (e.g., mediation). The goal is often to preserve harmony within the group.

Example: A person from China may opt for mediation to resolve a family dispute rather than taking the matter to court.

Individualist Cultures: People are more focused on justice and achieving fairness, even at the cost of relationships.

Example: In the USA, individuals are more likely to pursue litigation to settle disputes.

Question 56

Culture of Honor

Answer 56

In certain collectivist cultures, especially those where resources (like livestock) are mobile, a culture of honor may develop. Here, protecting one’s resources and reputation through aggression is often deemed acceptable.

Example: In herding societies, such as early southern U.S. settlers, aggression in response to insults or threats to property was socially sanctioned.

Question 57

Cultural and Social Behavior: Southern U.S. Studies

Answer 57

Study (Cohen et al., 1996):

Participants from Southern U.S. exhibited higher cortisol and testosterone levels after being insulted compared to Northerners.
Southerners viewed the insult as damaging to their honor and responded with more aggressive behavior, reflecting a culture of honor.

Study (Cohen & Nisbett, 1997):

Southern employers responded more sympathetically to a letter from a job applicant who had killed someone in an honor-related conflict, compared to northern employers.
No regional difference in responses to theft-related offenses.

Question 58

Idiocentrism vs. Allocentrism

Answer 58

Idiocentrism: Focuses on self-reliance, competition, and emotional distance from in-groups.

Common in: Individualist cultures (e.g., USA).

Allocentrism: Emphasizes interdependence, sociability, and loyalty to in-groups.

Common in: Collectivist cultures (e.g., China).

Key Insight: These traits can exist within both individualist and collectivist cultures. People may shift between idiocentric and allocentric behaviors based on the situation.
(Chatman & Barsade, 1995)

Question 59

The Importance of Situation: Allocentrism & Idiocentrism

Answer 59

Study (Chatman & Barsade, 1995; Chen, Wasti & Triandis, 2007):

Results showed that allocentrics were more cooperative in collectivist simulated cultures, while idiocentrics were less cooperative.

In individualist settings, cooperation was low regardless of personality type.

Conclusion: Situational factors can influence whether someone behaves more idiocentrically or allocentrically.