Midterm 1: chapter 1 Flashcards
What is Social Psychology
Scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.
What is hindsight bias?
The “I knew it all along” phenomenon.
Key Concept: After an event occurs, people often believe they predicted the outcome, even if they were unsure beforehand.
Relevance: Important to guard against hindsight bias in social psychological research.
What are the key focus areas of Social Psychology?
Thoughts about others.
Feelings toward others.
Behaviors toward others.
the “Real or Imagined presence”
focuses on each person’s
perceptions of the other, a critical factor is what each person believes about the other.
Real Presence
The influence of another person’s actual presence, e.g., hearing a parent’s voice over the phone.
Imagined Presence
How behavior changes based on imagined perceptions, e.g., acting differently because you think your partner is upset
Personality psychology AKA individual differences psychology
Identifying ways people are both similar and different (unique).
Key Aspects of Personality Psych
Personality traits are stable across situations.
Traits are internal to the person and influence thoughts, feelings, and actions.
“How we are like all others, some others, and no others.”
Sociology
Studies society at the group level, focusing on interactions among individuals and broader societal events (e.g., health disparities among socioeconomic groups).
The Emergence of Social Psychology
Norman Triplett (1898): Conducted the first social psychology experiment on social facilitation, showing that people perform better when others are present.
Max Ringelmann (1913): Studied social loafing, showing that individuals perform worse in groups on simple tasks.
“Founders” of Social Psychology
● Kurt Lewin: Introduced the interactionist perspective, emphasizing that behavior results from the interaction between person and environment.
● Floyd Allport: Studied group influence and social influence.
● George Allport: Founder of
personality psychology and president of APA (1939-1943).
Post-WWII Surge in Social Psychology
Solomon Asch: Famous for conformity experiments.
Stanley Milgram: Studied obedience to authority.
Muzafer Sherif: Known for research on social norms and conflict resolution.
Contact Hypothesis & Prejudice
Gordon Allport (1954): Explored intergroup relations.
Contact Hypothesis: Suggests that prejudice between groups can be reduced through cooperation and the pursuit of common goals.
Social Facilitation
People perform better when they are in the presence of others (Norman Triplett).
Social Loafing
People perform worse on simple tasks when working in groups (Max Ringelmann).
Conformity
Changing behavior to match others’ expectations or behaviors (Solomon Asch).
Obedience
Following orders or instructions from authority figures (Stanley Milgram).
Key Ethical Principles in Social Psychology
Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study before participation.
Deception: Allowed only if justifiably necessary and approved by an ethics board.
Minimize Harm: Avoid causing harm, such as emotional distress, during experiments.
Confidentiality: Ensure personal data is protected.
Debriefing: Fully inform participants of what happened during the study. Specifically used to reveal a deception if one took place in a study
Freedom to Withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
Ways of gathering information
○ Archival data
○ Observation
○ Questionnaires
○ Experiments
Archival Data
Use of existing data (e.g., crime rates, census data) to describe past behaviors.
Observation
Naturalistic: Observe behaviors in a real-world setting without participants’ knowledge.
Laboratory: More controlled environment but may sacrifice realism.
Field Experiments: Natural settings with some manipulation, often without consent until after data is collected.
Naturalistic Observation
Definition: Observing and recording behavior in a natural setting.
Advantages: Realistic context and natural behavior.
Risks: Lack of control over extraneous variables and randomness.
Example: Observing customer behavior in public spaces (but not in homes or businesses).
Laboratory Observation
Definition: Controlled observation in a lab environment.
Advantages: Greater control over variables like temperature, lighting, and distractions.
Risks: May lack realism compared to real-world settings.
Use of Trained Observers: Increases inter-observer reliability but poses a risk of observer bias.
Observer Bias
observer is more attentive for behaviors they expect to
find, fail to notice behaviors they don’t expect.
Hawthorne effect
participants’ awareness may cause them to
change their behavior.
Questionnaire Method
Uses: Common in correlational designs and experiments.
Problems: Dishonesty, random responding, socially desirable answers.
Solutions: Reverse-scored items, triangulation, and social desirability measures.
Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS)
Purpose: Measures socially desirable responding.
Format: 33 true or false questions.
Example Items:
- “My table manners at home are always as good as in a restaurant.”
- “I never hesitate to help someone in trouble.”
Application: Detects whether participants respond in a socially desirable manner.
Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR)
Part 1 (Self-Deception Enhancement):
Measures overconfidence and self-perception.
Example: “My first impressions of people usually turn out to be right.”
Part 2 (Impression Management):
Measures social approval motives.
Example: “I sometimes drive faster than the speed limit” (reverse scored).
Demand characteristics
The unintentional cues within the research setting/design that may inadvertently guide
participants’ behaviour
- Leading to response bias because the participant may be trying to “help you out”
Explicit measures
Explicit attitudes are conscious, deliberative, and controllable
* Typically assessed directly through questionnaires
* But can be subject to socially-desirable responding
Implicit measures
Implicit attitudes are attitudes that are unintentionally activated by the mere presence (actual or symbolic) of the attitude object
* Typically unconscious/automatic thoughts
* Implicit attitudes develop through repeated pairings of a category (gender, race, ethnicity, etc.) and an evaluation (a positive or negative emotional
connotation)
Implicit Association Test
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures attitudes and beliefs that people may be unwilling or unable to report. The IAT may be especially interesting if it shows that you have an implicit attitude that you did not know about
Faster responses indicate that the participant is able to easily
sort/classify the target into one of the two categories/groupings
Measuring Implicit Attitudes
If the speed of categorization is faster for one set of pairings versus the other set of pairings, then this would indicate an implicit bias
If the speed of categorization is similar for both sets – then this
indicates a potential lack of bias
Mundane realism
the extent to which an experiment is similar to situations encountered in everyday life. Is the study analogous to real- world situations?
* The study does not necessarily have to be exactly like a real-world situation, it can be an artificial situation.
Experimental realism
an experiment is realistic if the situation is involving to the participant, if they are forced to take it seriously, if it has
an impact on them
Psychological realism
the extent to which the psychological processes that occur in an experiment are the same as psychological processes that
occur in everyday life.
Culture
- A set of cognitive and evaluative beliefs – beliefs about what is or what ought to be – that are shared by the members of a social system and transmitted to new members. (House, 1981)
- The set of socially transmittable information in a population, which can influence cognition, affect, and behaviour. (Kashima, Bain, & Perfors,
2019) - Culture is to society what memory is to individuals. (Kluchhohn, 1954)
Cross-cultural psychology
Goal: Understand similarities and differences in psychological functioning across various cultures.
Etic Approach
Studies behavior from an outsider’s perspective, comparing different cultures based on universal criteria.
Cross-cultural methods
Method: Transfer, Test, and Discovery Procedure:
Transfer: Select psychological principles or models effective in one culture.
Test: Test these principles in other cultures to see if they generalize.
Discovery: Identify new factors or elements that emerge in different cultures.
Example: Testing the concept of individualism in Western vs. Eastern cultures, where Eastern societies may show a greater focus on collectivism.
Cultural Influences on Psychology
Culture influences how we perceive the world, what we pay attention to, and how we interpret social cues.
Perception and Cognition: Culturally developed conventions influence which elements of the environment we prioritize. For example, some cultures focus more on group harmony, while others emphasize individual achievement.
(Triandis, 2001)
Cultural Psychology: Three Main Goals
Goal 1: Characterize cultural meanings and practices along with their related psychological structures and processes.
Goal 2: Discover underlying systematic principles that create culturally patterned sociality and psychology.
Goal 3: Explore how culture and psychological processes shape each other in a feedback loop.
Example: In collectivist cultures, cultural practices supporting group harmony foster psychological tendencies like conformity, which in turn strengthen the culture’s norms.
Indigenous Psychology
A psychology developed within a specific cultural context by scholars from that context, for the benefit of people within that context. It emphasizes context-specific knowledge rather than universal principles.
Emic Approach:
Involves studying behavior from within the culture, without imposing external frameworks. This contrasts with cross-cultural psychology’s etic approach.
Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture (1980, 2001)
- Power Distance
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- Individualism vs collectivism
- Masculinity vs femininity
Power Distance
Power Distance: How much a society accepts that power is distributed unequally.
High Power Distance: Cultures where hierarchy and unequal power are accepted (e.g., India).
Low Power Distance: Cultures that value equality and minimize hierarchy (e.g., Denmark).
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree of discomfort in ambiguous or unstructured situations.
High Uncertainty Avoidance: Cultures that prefer clear rules and structure (e.g., Greece).
Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Cultures more comfortable with ambiguity and risk-taking (e.g., Singapore).
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Degree to which individuals prioritize personal goals vs. group goals.
Individualist Cultures: People are self-reliant and prioritize personal achievement (e.g., USA).
Collectivist Cultures: People prioritize the group’s well-being and maintain loyalty to family or clan (e.g., Japan).
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Masculinity vs. Femininity: Degree of gender role differentiation and emphasis on achievement.
Masculine Cultures: Emphasize achievement, assertiveness, and material success (e.g., Japan).
Feminine Cultures: Emphasize care, quality of life, and nurturing roles (e.g., Sweden).
Triandis’s Cultural Syndromes
- Complexity-Simplicity
- Tightness-Looseness
- Collectivism-Individualism
Complexity-Simplicity
Complex Cultures: Characterized by urbanization, wealth, and a variety of social roles and choices. These societies, such as the USA or Japan, tend to promote individualism, where personal goals and independence are valued.
Simple Cultures: Found in less urbanized, rural settings. These cultures, such as some traditional hunter-gatherer societies, tend to emphasize conformity and collectivism, where group goals and interdependence are prioritized.
Tightness-Looseness
Tight Cultures: Strong norms and strict enforcement of conformity. People are punished for even minor deviations from norms. Common in isolated societies with a high degree of interdependence, like Japan.
Tight cultures are typically collectivist, with clear roles and expectations.
Loose Cultures: More tolerant of deviations from norms. These cultures are often heterogeneous and influenced by neighboring cultures, as seen in countries like the USA and Australia. Population density is lower, and members have greater independence.
Collectivism-Individualism
Collectivist Cultures: Individuals are strongly connected to their in-groups (family, tribe, nation). Prioritization is given to group goals over personal goals. Interdependence, belongingness, and social obligations are central.
Focus: Relationships, empathy, loyalty, and hierarchy. The person’s self-concept is defined in relation to others.
Child Rearing: Conformity, obedience, and security are emphasized. Children are raised with a strong sense of duty and interdependence.
Example: Caretakers in collectivist cultures, like in China, model rules of interdependence and focus on harmonious relationships. Mothers often make decisions for their children based on what’s best for the family, rather than encouraging individual choice.
Individualist Cultures: Emphasize independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement. Individuals are seen as autonomous, with internal attributes like talents and personality traits defining them.
Focus: Achievement, personal distinction, and self-expression. The person is considered “free” and separate from others.
Child Rearing: Emphasis on independence, exploration, and self-reliance. Children are encouraged to make their own decisions and develop unique abilities.
Example: In the USA, children are encouraged to sleep in their own beds, and their milestones (like walking or speaking) are celebrated as individual accomplishments.
Child Rearing Practices Across Cultures
Individualist Cultures: Focus on developing the child as an independent agent. Children are often encouraged to do things on their own, and achievements that distinguish them from others are celebrated.
Example: In the USA, parents ask children to explain causes of situations in pictures, promoting individual analysis.
Collectivist Cultures: Focus on the child’s role within the group, emphasizing harmonious relationships and social responsibilities.
Example: In Japan, mothers ask children to focus on the feelings of others in pictures, promoting relational understanding.
Conflict Resolution
Collectivist Cultures: People prefer methods that maintain relationships (e.g., mediation). The goal is often to preserve harmony within the group.
Example: A person from China may opt for mediation to resolve a family dispute rather than taking the matter to court.
Individualist Cultures: People are more focused on justice and achieving fairness, even at the cost of relationships.
Example: In the USA, individuals are more likely to pursue litigation to settle disputes.
Culture of Honor
In certain collectivist cultures, especially those where resources (like livestock) are mobile, a culture of honor may develop. Here, protecting one’s resources and reputation through aggression is often deemed acceptable.
Example: In herding societies, such as early southern U.S. settlers, aggression in response to insults or threats to property was socially sanctioned.
Cultural and Social Behavior: Southern U.S. Studies
Study (Cohen et al., 1996):
Participants from Southern U.S. exhibited higher cortisol and testosterone levels after being insulted compared to Northerners.
Southerners viewed the insult as damaging to their honor and responded with more aggressive behavior, reflecting a culture of honor.
Study (Cohen & Nisbett, 1997):
Southern employers responded more sympathetically to a letter from a job applicant who had killed someone in an honor-related conflict, compared to northern employers.
No regional difference in responses to theft-related offenses.
Idiocentrism vs. Allocentrism
Idiocentrism: Focuses on self-reliance, competition, and emotional distance from in-groups.
Common in: Individualist cultures (e.g., USA).
Allocentrism: Emphasizes interdependence, sociability, and loyalty to in-groups.
Common in: Collectivist cultures (e.g., China).
Key Insight: These traits can exist within both individualist and collectivist cultures. People may shift between idiocentric and allocentric behaviors based on the situation.
(Chatman & Barsade, 1995)
The Importance of Situation: Allocentrism & Idiocentrism
Study (Chatman & Barsade, 1995; Chen, Wasti & Triandis, 2007):
Results showed that allocentrics were more cooperative in collectivist simulated cultures, while idiocentrics were less cooperative.
In individualist settings, cooperation was low regardless of personality type.
Conclusion: Situational factors can influence whether someone behaves more idiocentrically or allocentrically.
