Neuro Intro Physiology Flashcards by nura souliman

What occurs in gastrulation?

Gastrulation (3rd week development)

Ectoderm: skin, nervous system

Endoderm: epithelial lining of gut and respiratory system, liver, pancreas

Mesoderm: Notochord, muscular system

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

How does the spinal cord develop?

Ectoderm thickens in midline to form the neural plate

Notochord forms from mesoderm cells soon after
gastrulation is complete
Signals from notochord cause inward folding of
ectoderm at the neural plate
Ends of neural plate fuse and disconnect to form an
autonomous neural tube

Up until end of 4th week

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Where do the presumptive neural crest cells lie?

Lateral to the neural groove lie presumptive neural crest cells

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

When does the neural tube close?

The neural tube usually closes at the end of 4th embryonic week

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What abnormalities of the spinal cord are related to neural tube?

Abnormalities of the spinal cord

Failure to close cephalic region – anencephaly

Failure to close spinal region – spina bifida

Collectively called – neural tube defects

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What environmental factors contribute to neural tube defects?

Folic acid
Maternal diabetes

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

How does the brain develop?

4 weeks

Prosencephalon – cerebral hemispheres and thalamic structures
Mesencephalon – midbrain
Rhombencephalon – medulla, pons and cerebellum

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

How does the cererbal cortex form?

Formation of cwere

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What are micro and macrocephaly?

Microcephaly – reduced head circumference

Macrocephaly – increased head circumference

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What is Periventricular nodular heterotopia?

Periventricular nodular heterotopia – abnormal migration of neurons

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What is the circulation of the CSF like?

CSF circulates through the subarachnoid spaces and through the ventricles

•CSF cushions the brain and helps circulate metabolites

• Around 120 mLs

•Produced as filtrate of blood at choroid plexuses in ventricules

•Absorbed via arachnoid granulations in superior sagittal sinus

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What is hydrocephalus?

Hydrocephalus

•Accumulation of CSF with increased intracranial pressure
•Can cause macrocephaly in children (therefore always scan increasing head size)

•Obstructive (non-communicating): e.g. tumour, haemorrhage.

•Non-obstructive (communicating): e.g. increased CSF production

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What are the basic types of muscle?

Skeletal (striated, voluntary)
•Smooth (visceral, involuntary)
•Cardiac

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What is the basic structure of skeletal muscle?

Myofibres arranged in fascicles
•Connective tissue
•Epimysium
•Perimysium
•Endomysium
•Basement membrane
•Surrounds individual myofibres
•Collagen, glycoproteins and proteoglycans
•Roles in tensile strength, regeneration, development
•Vascular supply
•Innervation
•Myotendinous junction

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What is the innervation of skeletal muscle?

Each fibre innervated by one nerve, with cell bodies in anterior horn of spinal cord or brainstem
•One neuron innervates multiple muscle fibres – motor unit
•Neuromuscular junction
•Synapse – rapid transmission of depolarising impulse
•Acetyl choline – binds post-synaptic AChR
•Proprioception – length and tension
•Muscle spindles – encapsulated intrafusal fibres. Mediate stretch reflexes and proprioception
•Golgi tendon organs - tension

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Where is the control and sites of pathology in skeletal muscle?

Primary motor cortex - basal ganglia - cerebellar systems

Etc

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

What are the Sites of pathology affecting muscle and nerve?

MND
Peripheral neuropathies
Neuromuscular transmission defects
Primary muscle disease (myopathies)

What is skeletal muscle histology like?

Can be studied by muscle biopsy
•Requires the use of frozen sections and good orientation
•EM
•Molecular tests

How does Enzyme histochemistry reveals different fibre types

NADH
ATPase

What are the types of muscle fibres?

Slow twitch (red fibres) – type 1, oxidative, fatigue resistant
•Fast twitch – fatigue rapidly but generate a large peak of muscle tension
•2A – glycolytic and oxidative (intermediate)
•2B – glycolytic (white)

What is the motor unit like?

Motor neuron (lower) and the fibres it innervates
•Neuron and its fibres of same type
•Fibre type dependent on neuron
•Size of motor unit varies between muscles

How are motor units altered in denervating diseases?

Loss of innervation causes fibre atrophy
•Collateral sprouting from adjacent motor units allows reinnervation
•Larger motor units result – this can be detected electrophysiologically
•Conversion of fibres results in fibre type grouping

What is denervation and re-innervation?

What are fibre type groupings?

What is the organisation of micro fibrils like?

Sarcomere – basic unit of contraction Repeating arrangement of thick (myosin) and thin filaments (actin) Other proteins include At the Z-line --actinin -Titin -Nebulin -Desmin (links myofibrils to each other and the sarcolemma Linked to actin -Troponin/tropomyosin complex – Calcium regulation Z disc A-band I-band

What is the sliding filament theory?

Myosin heads bind actin •Binding of ATP allows release and hydrolysis to ADP allows movement of myosin head. ADP released during power stroke. •Sarcomeric shortening due to sliding of the filaments NOT change in length of either actin or myosin •Initiated by increased cytosolic Ca2+ •Accessory proteins •Troponin/tropomyosin – mediate Ca2+

What is the energy requirement in muscle?

High energy requirement from ATP •Creatine phosphate a short term energy store •CP replenished by creatine kinase (CK) •CK is released on muscle fibre damage •Measurement of serum CK clinically useful

What are mitochondrial cytopathies?

Mitochondrial DNA - Circular ds DNA, Maternally inherited •Diverse clinical presentations with an emphasis on CNS •E.g. MERRF, MELAS, CPEO •Mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear DNA •Mitochondrial mutations – maternal inheritance •Heteroplasmy

How are Mitochondrial cytopathies diagnosed by muscle biopsy?

Ragged red fibres - gomori trichrome •Electron transport chain deficits – cytochrome oxidase negative fibres •Abnormal mitochondrial morphology •Gene defects

What is the histochemistry of cytochrome oxidase and succinate dehydrogenase?

How is the Maintenance of Membrane Stability with Dystrophin and its Associated Proteins?

What are the dystophies of sacrolemmal related proteins?

Dystrophies are genetically determined, destructive and mainly progressive disorders of muscle •There are many types of dystrophy •Defects of proteins that confer stability to the sarcolemma are one group of causes.

What is dystrophin?

A large protein encoded by a 2.4 million bp gene on Xp21 •Confers stability to the muscle cell membrane •Deletion resulting in disruption of the reading frame results in Duchenne •In Becker’s, and in-frame deletion results in a truncated product

What occurs in neuromuscular transmission?

Nerve impulse results in the release of acetyl choline from synaptic vesicles •ACh binds to its receptor •Cation entry results in depolarisation, the end-plate potential •An action potential travels across the muscle cell membrane and into the T-tubule system •Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum leading to activation of contraction

What are some disorders of neuromuscular transmission?

Myasthenia gravis – variable weakness, progressive with sustained effort, eye signs – ptosis •Autoimmune disease •Anti-AChR antibodies resulting in a reduction in ACh receptors •Acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors can improve muscle function

What is the basic histology of peripheral nerves, nerve fascicles (cross section)?

What are myelinated fibres like?

In the PNS, the Schwann cell is responsible for the myelin sheath •Each Schwann cell is responsible for one segment of myelin •Nodes of Ranvier lie between adjacent myelin segments •The node is where depolarisation of the membrane occurs •Myelination allows saltatory conduction

What are peripheral neuropathies?

Damage to motor or sensory neurons – neuronopathies •Damage to axons – axonopathies •Selective damage to myelin sheaths - demyelination

What is axonal degeneration/regeneration/wallerian degeneration?

•Injury to axon – distal fragmentation •Globules of myelin and axon debris form, initially within Schwann cell •Axonal sprouts form from proximal part of damaged axon and grow along columns of proliferating Schwann cells •Regenerated axons can remyelinate

What is demyelination?

Injuries primarily to Schwann cell or myelin sheath •Demyelination segmental •Remyelination begins with a thin myelin sheath •Demyelination results in functional impairment with slowing of conduction velocity