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MOD Exam 2 > Neoplasia > Flashcards

Neoplasia Flashcards

1
Q

H. pylori is implicated in the pathogenesis of what cancers?

A

Gastric adenocarcinoma

Gastric lymphomas

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2
Q

How is the HTLV-1 retrovirus spread?

A

Sexually

Blood products

Breastfeeding

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3
Q

Where are the two cell cycle checkpoints located?

A

Between G1 and S

Between G2 and M

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4
Q

Define dysplasia

A

Disorderd growth

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5
Q

Of the two general processes involved in cancer-associated hypercalcemia, which is considered to be paraneoplastic?

A

The production of calcemic humoral substances by extraosseous neoplasms

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6
Q

A big differentiating factor between cancer and a benign tumor is that benign tumors do not metastasize to distant sites. What prevents a benign tumor from metastasizing?

A

They grow and expand slowly, allowing for the formation of a rim of fibrous tissue, a capsule, that separates them from the host tissue

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7
Q

What is the purpose of grading a tumor?

A

To determine the extent to which the tumor cells resemble or fail to resemble their normal counterparts

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8
Q

What cancers have the propensity for invasion of veins?

A

Hepatocellular carcinoma

Renal cell carcinoma

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9
Q

What EBV genes help to promote carcinogenesis?

A

LMP-1

EBNA-2

vIL-10

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10
Q

What determines whether a cell repairs its DNA, becomes senescent, or undergoes apoptos?

A

Duration and level of p53 activation

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11
Q

There are different endocrinopathies that are classified as paraneoplastic syndromes, of these, which is the most common?

A

Cushing syndrome

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12
Q

Tumor is now equated with neoplasm, what was tumor often used to describe in the past?

A

The swelling caused by inflammation

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13
Q

What are the most common tumors that arise in men?

A

Prostate

Lung

Colon/rectum

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14
Q

What cancers are in the immediate category of vulnerability to induction by radiation?

A

Breast, lung, salivary gland

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15
Q

What cytokine is though to be involved in cachexia?

A

TNF

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16
Q

What human retrovirus is implicated in the pathogenesis of cancer?

A

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1)

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17
Q

What are the high-risk strains of HPV?

A

16 and 18

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18
Q

Hematogenous spread of cancer is more easily attained through the veins, as the vessel walls are thinner than those of arteries. Venous invasion allows the cells to flow from the site of the primary tumor, where do the cells typically come to rest?

A

In the first capillary bed they encounter, most commonly the lungs and the liver

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19
Q

What chromosomal change is most commonly involved in the activation of proto-oncogenes?

A

Chromosomal translocation

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20
Q

What tumor suppressor gene is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancers and has the main function of regulating cell cycle progression, DNA repair, cellular sensecence and apoptosis?

A

TP53

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21
Q

What medical professional tends to grade a tumor?

A

Pathologist

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22
Q

The growth and spread of a tumor is critically dependent on…

A

their stroma

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23
Q

What cancer types often spread through the blood? (hematogenous spread)

A

Sarcomas

Sometimes carcinomas

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24
Q

What are the common neoplasms of infancy and childhood that are not seen in adults

A

Small blue cell tumors:

Neuroblastoma

Wilms Tumor

Rhabdomyosarcoma

AML

Retinoblastoma

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25
Q

How do mixed tumors arise?

A

Divergent differentiation of a single neoplastic clone

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26
Q

Tumor differentiation is defined as

A

The extent to which neoplastic parenchymal cells resemble the corresponding normal parenchymal cells, both morphologically and functionally

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27
Q

The classification of a tumor and their behavior are determined by what component?

A

The tumor parenchyma

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28
Q

At what point does a carcinoma in situ turn into a carcinoma?

A

When the tumor cells breach the basement membrane

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29
Q

Mitoses are indicative of rapid cell growth, hence this is seen in normal tissues that rapidly turnover. What specific characteristics of mitoses are seen that would determine it to be part of a malignant neoplasm?

A

Atypical, bizarre mitotic figures, sometimes with tripolar, quadripolar or multipolar spindles

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30
Q

Most hematopoietic and solid tumors overexpress what protein, helping to evade apoptosis?

A

A member of the BCL2 family (BCL2, BCL-XL, MCL1)

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31
Q

Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy is characterized by

What cancers are associated with this paraneoplastic disorder?

A

Periosteal new bone formation, primarily at the distal end of long bones, hands/feet

Arthritis of adjacent joints

Clubbing of the digits

Bronchogenic carcinoma and thymic neoplasms

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32
Q

ERBB2 gene amplification is seen in what cancer type?

A

Breast carcinoma

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33
Q

What are the two classes of major cancer-associated mutations that affect the G1/S checkpoint?

A

Gain of function mutations in the D cyclin genes and CDK4 (promote progression)

Loss of function mutations in tumor suppressor genes (inhibit progression)

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34
Q

The main function of tumor suppressor genes is to apply the brakes on cell proliferation, what occurs when there are mutations in these tumor suppressor genes?

A

Failure of growth inhibition, another hallmark of cancer

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35
Q

What is the most common lung neoplasm associated with paraneoplastic hypercalcemia?

A

Squamous cell carcinoma

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36
Q

What enzyme is involved in a cancer cells evasion of the mitotic crisis?

A

Telomerase

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37
Q

What is a sentinel node and how is it used to clinically define the stage of a cancer?

A

The first node in a reginoal lymphatic basin that receives lymph flow from the primary tumor.

These nodes are used for biopsy to assess presence or absence of metastatic lesions in order to avoid the surgical morbidity associated with total lymph node ressection (lymphedema)

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38
Q

A mutation that contributes to the development of the malignant phenotype is referred to as

A

Driver mutation

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39
Q

Where is the WT1 gene located?

A

11p13

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40
Q

What is the most frequently mutated oncogenic pathway in human neoplasms?

A

Receptor tyrosine kinase pathway

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41
Q

ERBB1 point mutations are found in a subset of what cancers?

A

Lung adenocarcinomas

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42
Q

What type of mutations are a common early step in the malignant transformation of solid tumors?

A

Loss-of-function mutations

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43
Q

What growth factors are commonly expressed in a wide variety of tumor cells, promoting angiogenesis?

A

bFGF

VEGF

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44
Q

EBV is implicated in the pathogenesis of what tumors?

Of these, which is most common (bold the term)?

A

Burkitt lymphoma (B-cell lymphoma)

Subset of Hodgkin lymphoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Some gastric carcinomas

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45
Q

Cachexia is associated with

A

Equal loss of both fat and lean muscle

Elevated BMR

Evidence of systemic inflammation (increase in acute phase reactants)

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46
Q

What are the steps of tumor cell invasion

A
  1. Dissociation of the cancer cells from one another
  2. Degradation of the basement membrane and interstitial CT
  3. Changes in attachment of tumors cells to ECM proteins
  4. Locomotion
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47
Q

A malignant carcinoma is a tumor that originated from where?

A

Epithelial cells from any of the 3 germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)

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48
Q

What chemical carcinogen is associated with a mutational hotspot?

What is it mean by hotspot?

A

aflatoxin B1

Some carcinogens interact preferentially with particular DNA sequences or bases, producing mutations that are clustered at “hotspots”

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49
Q

Two components of a tumor

A
  1. neoplastic cells that constitute tumor parenchyma
  2. reactive stroma made up of connective tissue, blood vessels, and variable numbers of cells of the adaptive and innate immune system
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50
Q

Translocation in mantle cell lymphoma

A

(11;14)(q13;q32)

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51
Q

Vinyl chloride, a refrigerant, is associated in the risk of developing what cancer?

A

Hepatic angiosarcoma

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52
Q

Define metaplasia

Provide an example

A

Replacement of one cell type to another in response to stress, such that the new cell type is better suited to handle the stress

Barrets esophagus

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53
Q

Cancers associated with cushing syndrome

A

Small-cell carcinoma of the lung

Pancreatic carcinoma

Neural tumors

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54
Q

Mutation in WT1 leads to what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancer?

A

Familial Wilms tumor

Wilms tumor and certain leukemias

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55
Q

Lymphatic spread is the most common way for carcinomas to initially spread, how is this achieved if tumors to do have their own functional lymphatics?

A

Lymphatic vessels located adjacent to the site of the tumor are used to allow spread of neoplastic cells

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56
Q

Cancer is the main cause of death in men of what age group?

A

60-79

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57
Q

What are the molecular targets of chemical carcinogens?

A

DNA

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58
Q

Fine needle aspiration is a technique used to sample a lesion and assess the cells to determine grade of neoplasm, for what lesions is this method most commonly used?

A

Most commonly used for the assessment of easily palpable lesions such as the breast, thyroid, and lymph nodes

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59
Q

Solid tumor cells express what cell surface receptor that assists in their spread to lymph nodes and other sites?

A

CD44

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60
Q

What was the first tumor suppressor gene discovered, and functions as a prototype of genes of this type?

A

RB (retinoblastoma)

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61
Q

Anoikis is a form of cell death that results when what occurs?

A

When epithelial cells detach from the basement membranes

AND

from cell-cell interactions

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62
Q

What enzymes are required for the metabolic activation of an indirect-acting carcinogen into an active ultimate carcinogen?

A

cytochrome P450-dependent momo-oxygenases

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63
Q

alpha-fetoprotein is a tumor marker for what tumor types?

A

Liver cell CA

Nonseminomatous germ cell tumors of the testis

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64
Q

How does tax contribute to the acquisition of hallmarks of cancer?

A

Increases pro-growth signaling and cell survival

Increases genomic instability

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65
Q

Overexpression of what protein is linked to cancer cell survival and drug resistance (resistance to chemotherapy)

A

MCL1

(a member of the BCL-2 anti-apoptotic family)

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66
Q

Translocations in AML?

A

(8;21)(q22;q22)

(15;17)(q22;q21)

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67
Q

Besides pancreatic adenocarcinomas and cholangiocarcinomas, what other cancer types can be attributed to mutations in RAS?

A

Colon, endometrial and thyroid cancers (50% of the time)

Lung adenocarcinomas, myeloid leukemias (30% of the time)

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68
Q

Translocation in follicular lymphoma

A

(14;18)(q32;q21)

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69
Q

Define oncogene

A

Mutated or overexpressed version of proto-oncogenes that function autonomously, having lost dependence on normal growth promoting signals

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70
Q

Salivary mixed tumors are often referred to as pleomorphic adenomas, what is characteristic of these tumors that attribute to this nomenclature?

A

These tumors arise from a single clone capable of producing both epithelial and myoepithelial cells

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71
Q

What cancers are caused by the HTLV-1 retrovirus?

A

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma

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72
Q

Metastasis unequivocally marks a tumor as malignant and is defined by

A

the spread of tumor to sites that are physically discontinuous with the primary tumor

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73
Q

What is a hallmark of patients with mismatch-repair defects?

A

Microsatellite instability

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74
Q

What defines a paraneoplastic syndrome?

A

An individual with cancer has signs and symptoms that cannot be explained by the anatomic distribution of their tumor or by the elaboration of hormones indigenous to the tissue from which the tumor arose

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75
Q

Germline loss-of-function mutations in the E-cadherin gene, CDH1, result in what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancer?

A

Familial gastric carcinoma

Sportadic gastric carcinomas

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76
Q

What are the steps involved in chemical carcinogenesis and what do they involve?

A

Initation- cells are exposed to a carcinogenic agent, leading to cell alteration

Promotion- induce tumors to arise from initiated cells

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77
Q

Define neoplasia

A

New growth, often progressive and uncontrolled

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78
Q

All cancers have been found to display 8 fundamental changes in cell physiology, which are considered to be the hallmarks of cancer. What are these 8 hallmarks?

A

Self-sufficiency in growth signals

Insensitivity to growth-inhibitory signals

Altered cellular metabolism

Evasion of apoptosis

Limitless replicative potential (immortality)

Sustained angiogenesis

Ability to invade and metastasize

Ability to evade the host immune response

79
Q

Tumors arising in the context of chronic inflammation are most likely of what type?

A

Carcinomas

80
Q

What is the most common paraneoplastic syndrome?

A

Hypercalcemia

81
Q

Describe the warburg effect

A

Despite ample oxygen, cancer cells exhibit a distinct for of cellular metabolism, consisting of high levels of glucose uptake and increased conversion of glucose to lactose

82
Q

The rising incidence of cancer with age is explained by

A

accumulation of somatic mutations associated with the emergence of malignant neoplasms

83
Q

Seeding of body cavities and surfaces by tumor cells occurs when

A

malignant neoplasias penetrate a natural open field, lacking physical barriers

84
Q

Xeroderma pigmentosa arises 2/2 what type of mutation?

A

A mutation in nucleotide excision repair

85
Q

Indirect-acting carcinogens

A

Require metabolic conversion in order to become active carcinogens

86
Q

All initiating chemical carcinogens are

A

highly reactive electrophiles

87
Q

Why are gastric lymphomas often termed MALTomas?

A

They are B-cell in origin and have some features of peyer’s patches

88
Q

The capsule formed around benign tumors make it easily excessible for surgical removal, why are malignant tumors difficult to surgical excise?

A

Most malignant tumors do not recognize normal anatomical boundaries and often penetrate walls of various organs. The invasiveness of these cancers make it difficult to resect them surgically

89
Q

In what state is RB inactivated, thus allowing progression through the cell cycle?

A

Hyperphosphorylated

90
Q

When looking at a histological image, when the term anaplastic is used, what is often seen?

A

Cellular and nuclear variation in size and shape. Prominant cells with abnormal mitotic spindles

91
Q

Mutations in the NF2 gene result in neurofibromatosis type 2, those with this condition also develop what benign tumor?

What malignant tumor?

A

Benign bilateral schwannomas

Sporadic meningiomas, ependyomas

92
Q

Mutation in the tumor suppressor gene RB leads to what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancers?

A

Retinoblastoma syndrome

Retinoblastoma, osteosarcoma, carcinomas of the breast colon and lung

93
Q

What characterized adenomatous polyposis coli?

A

It is an autosomal dominant disorder in which individuals born with one mutant allele develop thousands of adenomatous polyps in the colon during their teens/20s, one or more of these polyps undergo malignant transformation

94
Q

What are some examples of precursor lesions that can, but dont always, progress to cancer?

A

Barrett esophagus

Squamous metaplasia of bronchial mucosa

Colonic metaplasia

Endometrial hyperplasia

Leukoplakia

95
Q

What 5 human DNA viruses have been implicated in the causation of cancer?

A

HPV

EBV

HBV

Merkel cell polyoma virus

HHSV8

96
Q

how is a cystic teratoma of the ovary different from a mixed salivary tumor?

A

A salivary tumor contains epithelial components scattered with myxoid stroma of cartilage or bone

A cystic teratoma is of ectodermal origin, generating a cystic tumor lined with skin and hair, sebaceous glands and tooth structures

97
Q

Carcinoembryonic antigen is a tumor marker for what tumor type?

A

Carcinomas of the colon, pancreas, lung, stomach, and heart

98
Q

What is characteristic of nuclei in cancer cells?

A

Nuclei are disproportionately large for the cell

The shape is variable and often irregular

Chromatin are coarsely clumped a stain darker than normal

99
Q

What 3 factors appear to be critical to the immortality of cancer cells?

A

Evasion of senscence

Evasion of mitotic crisis

Capacity for self-renewal

100
Q

What is the main target of the HTLV-1 retrovirus?

A

CD4+ T-cells

101
Q

Flow cytometry is often used to identify cellular antigens expressed by what tumor type?

A

“liquid” tumors- those that arise from blood-forming tissues

102
Q

Staging of a solid tumor is based on

A

Size of the primary lesion

Its extent of spread to regional lymph nodes

Presence or absence of blood-borne metastases

103
Q

A loss-of-function mutation in the WT1 gene is associated with the formation of what cancer type?

A

Wilms tumor

(pediatric cancer of the kidneys)

104
Q

Mutations in the proto-oncogene, ALK, lead to what associated human tumor

A

Lung adenocarcinoma

Some lymphomas

Neuroblastoma

105
Q

In what ways can a tumor cell evade the immune system in an immunocompetent person?

A

Selective outgrowth of ag-negative variants

Loss or reduced expression of histocompatibility Ags

Immune suppression through the production of TGF-β, PD-1 ligand, and galectins by tumor cells

106
Q

MLL2 is responsible for histone methylation, a mutation in this epigenomic regulatory gene results in what cancer type?

A

Follicular lymphoma

Frequency of mutation in this tumor type: 90%

107
Q

Define oncoprotein

A

A protein encoded by an oncogene that drives increased cell proliferation through several mechanisms

108
Q

Acanthosis nigricans is a disorder characterized by

A

Gray-black patches of thickened, hyperkeratotic skin with a velvety appearance

109
Q

SNF5 is responsible for nucleosome positioning/chromatin remodeling, a mutation in this epigenomic regulatory gene results in what cancer type?

A

Malignant rhabdoid tumor

Frequency of mutation in this tumor type: 100%

110
Q

Exposure to UV rays is associated with an increased risk of developing what types of cancers, particularly in fair skinned individuals?

A

Squamous cell carcinoma

Basal cell carcinoma

Melanoma

111
Q

What cancers are frequently induced by radiation?

A

Myeloid leukemias

Thyroid cancer in young children

112
Q

What three RAS genes are found in humans?

A

HRAS

KRAS

NRAS

113
Q

Why are individuals with xeroderma pigmentosa at an increased risk of developing skin cancer, particularly after UV exposure?

A

UV light causes cross-linking of pyrimidine residues, these cross-links are typically repaired by the nucleotide excision repair pathway; however, patients with xeroderma pigmentosa lack this NER pathway and cannot uncross these linkages

114
Q

What is responsible for the proteolysis of muscles, seen in cancer cachexia?

A

Humoral factors released from tumor cells

115
Q

What gene encodes the p16 protein?

A

CDKN2A

116
Q

Prostate-specific antigen is a tumor marker for what tumor type?

A

Prostate

117
Q

When a neoplasm, whether it be benign or malignant, forms a visible projection above the mucosal surface, it is termed?

Where are these neoplasias often seen?

A

Polyp

in the stomach or colon

118
Q

A loss-of-function mutation in what gene is associated with hereditary renal carcinomas, pheochromocytomas, hemangioblastomas, retinal angiomas and renal cysts?

A

VHL (Von Hippel Lindau)

119
Q

Define proto-oncogene

A

normal cellular genes whose products promote cell proliferation

120
Q

Cancer cells often display pleomorphism, what does this mean?

A

Cells vary in size and shape and thus cells within a tumor are not uniform

121
Q

Malignant tumors arising from blood-forming cells, particularly white blood cells, are referred to as

A

Leukemias

122
Q

What are the four regulatory genes that are the targets of cancer causing mutations?

A

Growth promoting proto-oncogenes

Growth inhibiting tumor suppressor genes

Genes that regulate programmed cell death (apoptosis)

Genes involved in DNA repair

123
Q

Normal function of miRNA

A

They mediate sequence-specific inhibition of mRNA translation through RNA-induced silencing complex, controlling normal cell growth, differentiation, and cell survival

124
Q

Direct-acting carcinogens

Provide an example

A

Require no metabolic conversions to become carcinogenic

Cancer chemo drugs

125
Q

What in relation to cell adhesion is a key characteristic of carcinomas?

A

Loss-of-contact inhibition, by mutation of E-cadherin/β-catenin axis

126
Q

Mutations in NF1 lead to what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancer?

A

Neurofibromatosis type 1

Neuroblastoma and juveline myeloid leukemia

127
Q

What malignant neoplasms are inappropriately named by having benign terminologies

A

Lymphoma

Melanoma

Mesothelioma

Seminoma

128
Q

What contributes to the likelihood of a tumor metastasizing?

A

Lack of differentiation

Aggressive local invasion

Rapid growth

Large size

129
Q

WT1 gene encodes for the protein WT1, what is the normal function of this protein?

A

Transcriptional activator of genes involved in renal and gonadal differentiation

130
Q

In what ways is MYC thought to contribute to cancer cells?

A

MYC upregulates telomerase, contributing to cancer cell immortality

MYC acts with other TFs to reprogram somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells, contributing to cancer cell “stemness”

131
Q

What pathway of apoptosis is most frequently disable in cancer?

A

Intrinsic

(Mitochondrial)

132
Q

What are the most common tumors that arise in women?

A

Breast

Lung

Colon/rectum

133
Q

For what cancers is cytologic smears a common method employed to assess malignancy?

A

Carcinoma of the cervix

Endometrial carcinoma

Lung carcinoma

Bladder and prostatic tumors

Gastric carcinomas

134
Q

What is the frequent cause of death of patients with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma?

A

Opportunistic infections

135
Q

To designate a benign tumor from a malignant tumor, what suffix is added to the name?

A

-oma

136
Q

Burkitt lymphoma is the most common childhood tumor in what areas of the world?

A

Central Africa

New Guinea

137
Q

Malignant tumors that arise from solid mesenchymal tissues are referred to as

A

Sarcomas

138
Q

The HTLV-1 genome contains the same genes as all retroviruses (gag, pol, env, LTR) but also contains what other gene?

A

Tax, which is essential for viral replication

139
Q

Oncogenes are created by mutations in proto-oncogenes, what do proto-oncogenes encode?

A

proteins (oncoproteins) that have the ability to promote cell growth in the absence of normal growth-promoting signals

140
Q

The molecular basis of multi-step carcinogenesis has been best defined through the evolution of what cancer?

A

Colorectal

141
Q

Loss of normal cell control is central to malignant transformation, indicating at least one key regulators is dysregulated, what are the possible regulators that contribute to this malignant transformation?

A

p16/INK4a

Cyclin D

CDK4

RB

142
Q

Mutations in the tumor suppressor gene TP53 result in what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancer?

A

Li-Fraumeni syndrome

Most human cancers

143
Q

When is a neoplasm referred to carcinoma in situ?

A

When the dysplastic changes are marked and involve the full thickness of the epithelium, but does not penetrate the basement membrane

144
Q

Chromothrypsis, also known as chromosome shattering, has been found in what types of cancers?

A

Osteosarcomas (25%)

Gliomas

145
Q

Cancer is the main cause of death in women of what age group?

A

40-79

146
Q

Immunodeficient states predispose to the development of what types of cancer?

A

virus-induced

147
Q

In what state does RB exert antiproliferative effects?

A

Hypophosphorylated

148
Q

Epithelial dysplasia is characterized by

A

A constellation of changes that include loss of uniformity of the cells as well as the loss in their architectural organization

149
Q

Define adenoma

A

a benign epithelial neoplasm derived from glands, although they may or may not form glandular structures

150
Q

What cancer type are HPV 16 and 18 implicated in?

A

Squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix, anogenital region, head and neck

151
Q

What characterizes a tumor as benign?

A

The tumor is considered to be innocent; it will remain localized and will not spread to other sites, it is also amenable to local surgical removal

152
Q

What was the first bacterium to be classified as a carcinogen?

A

H. pylori

153
Q

Loss of function mutations in what gene is associated with familial adenomatous polyposis?

A

APC (adenomatous polyposis coli)

154
Q

After metastasis, what is the most reliable feature that differentiates cancers from benign tumors?

A

Invasiveness

155
Q

What cancers are associted with paraneoplastic hypercalcemia?

A

Carcinomas of the breast, lungs, kidneys, ovaries

156
Q

Malignant tumors arising from lymphocytes and their precursors are referred to as

A

Lymphomas

157
Q

Of the UV wavelengths, which is associated with the greatest risk of cancer development? Why?

A

UVB

Forms pyrimidine dimers in DNA

158
Q

In what areas are adult T-cell leukemia/lymphomas caused the the HTLV-1 retrovirus commonly found?

A

Certain parts of Japan

Caribbean basin

South America

Africa

159
Q

What is the most common pathway for the initial dissemination of carcinomas?

A

Lymphatic spread

160
Q

What tumor suppressor gene is the “governer of proliferation” and is inactivated in most human cancers?

A

RB

161
Q

Translocation in CML

A

(9;22)(q34;q11)

162
Q

Mutations in the BCRA1 and BCRA2 genes lead to what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancers?

A

Familial breast and ovarian carcinoma, carcinomas of the male breast, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (BCRA2)

Sporadic cacners: Rare

163
Q

Mutation in the tumor suppressor gene MSH results in what familial syndrome and what sporadic cancer?

A

Hereditary nonpolyposis colon carcinoma

Colon and endometrial carcinoma

164
Q

Immunohistochemical identification of cytokeratins would indicate what type of cancer

A

Carcinoma (cells are of epithelial origin)

165
Q

Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer syndrome is characterized by?

What does it result from?

A

Familial carcinomas of the colon, affecting the cecum and proximal colon

Results from defects in the genes encoding a group of proteins that work together to carry out DNA mismatch repair

166
Q

PTCH1, a tumor suppressor gene, encodes the protein PATCHED1. This protein is a negative regulator of the Hedgehog signaling pathway.

A loss-of-function mutation in the PTCH1 gene results in uncontrolled hedgehog signaling, increasing the risk of developing what cancer types?

A

Basal cell carcinoma of the skin

Medulloblastoma

167
Q

How do teratomas differ from other types of neoplasms?

A

Most neoplasms are derived from a single germ layer, while teratomas contain cells from more than one germ layer

168
Q

According to the American Academy of Dermatology, what is the most common cancer in the US?

A

non-melanoma skin cancer

169
Q

What are the major forms of underlying cancer in acanthosis nigricans?

A

Gastric carcinoma

Lung carcinoma

Uterine carcinoma

170
Q

Why are individuals born with inherited defects in DNA repair mechanisms are at an increased risk for developing cancer?

A

The abnormalities that arise because of these defects enhances the occurrance of mutations in other genes during the process of normal cell division, which can lead to the development of cancers

171
Q

NMYC gene amplification is seen in what cancer?

A

Neuroblastoma

172
Q

Cachexia is characterized by

A

Progressive loss of body fat and lean body mass

Weakness

Anorexia

Anemia

173
Q

What two oncofetal proteins serve as markers that aid in tumor diagnosis and clinical managment?

A

Carcinoembryonic Ag (CEA)

α-fetoprotein (AFP)

174
Q

A mutation or translocation in the proto-oncogene BRAF results in what tumor type

A

Melanomas

Leukemias

Colon carcinoma

175
Q

Translocation in Burkitt lymphoma

A

(8;14)(q24;q32)

176
Q

What morphologic changes are often also seen with aplasia?

A

Pleomorphism

Abnormal nuclear morphology

Mitoses

Loss of polarity

177
Q

How do mutations in RAS And PI3K contribute to cancer?

A

Oncogenic versions of these players lead to constitutive growth-factor independent tyrosine kinase activity

178
Q

MLL1 is responsible for histone methylation, a mutation in this epigenomic regulatory gene results in what cancer type?

A

acute leukemia in infants

frequency of mutation in this tumor type: 90%

179
Q

What is considered to be a hallmark of malignancy?

What does this term refer to?

A

Anaplasia

Lack of differentiation

180
Q

HCG is a tumor marker for what tumor types?

A

Trophoblastic tumors

Nonseminoumatous testicular tumors

181
Q

Even if a tumor has all the genetic aberrations require to undergo malignant transofmation, the tumor cell cannot grow unless it as the ability to induce what?

A

Angiogenesis

182
Q

RAS point mutations are found in 90% of what cancer types?

*point mutations in the RAS family are the most common type of abnormality involving proto-oncogenes in human cancers*

A

Pancreatic adenocarcinomas

Cholangiocarcinomas

183
Q

MYC translocations are seen in what types of cancer?

A

Burkitt lymphoma

184
Q

What tissues are considered to be relatively resistant to radiation-induced neoplasia?

A

Skin

Bone

GI tract

185
Q

immunohistochemical detection of desmin indicates a neoplasm of what origin?

A

Muscle

186
Q

What are the two most important tumor suppressor genes that encode proteins that inhibit progression through the G1/S checkpoint?

A

RB

TP53

187
Q

The metabolic conversion of an indirect-acting carcinogen forms a?

Provide an example

A

Ultimate carcinogen

Polycyclic hydrocarbons in fossil fuels

188
Q

Generally, when does genomic instability occur?

A

When both copies of the DNA repair gene are lost

189
Q

Describe the “two-hit” hypothesis of oncogenesis

A

*described in the case of retinoblastoma*

Two mutations, involving both alleles of RB, are required to produce retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma develops when a child has one inherited defective copy of the allele, but the normal allele undergoes spontaneous mutation

In sporadic cases, both alleles must undergo somatic mutation for retinoblastoma to develop

190
Q

70-85% of hepatocellular carcinomas are caused by an infection by what virus?

A

Hep B

OR

Hep C

191
Q

What is ocogene addiction?

A

Certain tumor cells are highly dependent on the activity of one or more oncogenes

192
Q

What medical professional determines the stage of a cancer?

A

An oncologist

193
Q

Through what pathways is it possible for cancers to spread?

A

Direct seeding of body cavities or spaces

Lymphatic spread

Hematogenous spread

194
Q

In what cancers is ABL gene translocated to another chromosome, where it fuses with the BCR gene, generating a constitutively active BCR-ABL tyroskine kinase?

A

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)

Some acute lymphoblastic leukemias (ALL)

MOD Exam 2 (5 decks)

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