Navigation Flashcards
What are the 5 Methods of Navigation?
Pilotage - Using reference to the surface
Dead Reckoning - “Point and Shoot” using the surface
Radio Navigation - Without reference to surface
Celestial Navigation - Using reference to stars
GPS Navigation - using the Global Positioning System to determine location
How many minutes in a degrees of lat/long and how many seconds in a minute?
60
Longitude lines are known as what? Latitude lines are known as what?
Meridians of Longitude
Parallels of Latitude
Describe Meridians of Longitude
Join the true poles of the Earth, run North to South, measure East and West of the Prime Meridian, distance between lines decreases as you get nearer to poles
Describe Parallels of Latitude
Run parallel to Equator, Measured North and South of the Equator, distance between lines is constant
How many degrees of Longitude are completed in one day? and how fast does the Earth spin in degrees of Longitude/hour
360 degrees of Longitude in a day. 15 degrees of Longitude an hour
Where is Standard Time located, and what is it known as?
Greenwich, England. Known as GMT, UTC, or Zulu
What Time system is used in all ATC or Meteorology services?
Zulu Time
How many time zones in Canada and name them
6 Time Zones
Pacific, Mountain, Central, Eastern, Atlantic, and Newfoundland
What is a Great Circle?
Line over the surface of the Earth that, if extended over the entire surface, it would cut it exactly in half
Is the Equator a Great Circle?
Yes
What does a Great Circle represent?
The shortest distance between two points on the Earth. However, aircraft must constantly adjust heading because it does not meet Meridians at same angle
What is Rhumb Line?
A curved line on Earth that meets each Meridian at the same angle
What are some Advantages and Disadvantages of Rhumb Lines?
Advantage: Allows pilots to fly a constant heading
Disadvantage: Unless track is on a Meridian, route is longer than Great Circle
What is the Difference between Heading and Bearing?
Heading is the direction the aircraft’s nose is pointed
Bearing is the direction of an object from an observer or our position relative to a point
Is the Earth a magnet?
Yes
What does a compass needle align itself with?
The North seeking end of the needle will always point towards magnetic North
What causes Magnetic Dip?
Earth’s magnetic lines are horizontal over the Equator, but vertical at the poles. In Northern Latitudes this causes the needle to point down
What is the Geographic Area where Magnetic Dip occurs called?
The Area of Compass Unreliability, or Northern Domestic Airspace
What allows us to make sure we are going in the right direction even though True North, and Magnetic North are in different places?
Magnetic Variation
What is an Isogonic Line, and what is an Agonic Line?
Isogonic Line is a line joining places of equal variation
Agonic line is a line joining places of zero variation
If magnetic pole lies west of true pole what must we do?
Add the variation on to True North
When is the Compass reliable?
During level constant airspeed flight, or constant rate climbs or descents
Does the Compass require any external power?
No
Explain the Construction of the Compass
2 North seeking magnets
Attached to float which has compass card attached to it
Mounted on a pivot
Filled with kerosene to dampen oscillations
Container has expansion chamber for temperature changes
Housing made of brass (non-magnetic)
What is the line on the compass that shows the direction you are going called?
The Lubber Line
Name and Describe 4 Compass Errors
Deviation - Needle can be deflected due to magnetic interference, must be corrected by knowing deviation and adding or subtracting depending on direction (Compass Card prepared by Compass Swinging)
Magnetic Dip - Already touched on, vertical magnetic lines at poles causes North to point down, compensated by balancing magnet on pivot point, centre of gravity below pivot point, and centre of buoyancy above centre of gravity
Northerly Turning Error - Turns to or from North lag or show turn in opposite direction, Turns to or from south lead. Max on headings of N or S, Min on headings of E or W
Acceleration and Deceleration Error - Acceleration causes compass to show turn to North, Deceleration causes turn to South, Max on E W headings, Min on N S headings
When can we reset the Heading Indicator?
Only when the compass is accurately and reliably showing information
When in GPS available for location services?
Available all over the world, in any weather condition
How many satellites make up the GPS system?
24 in 6 semi-synchronous orbits
How often does a Satellite complete an orbit?
Every 12 hours
How many Atomic Clocks does each Satellite contain?
4 (accurate to at least a billionth of a second)
Describe the 3 Segments of GPS
Space Segment - Satellites orbiting the Earth
Control Segment - Master Control Station (tracking, monitoring, and updating satellites) and Monitor Stations (checks altitude, position, speed, and health of satellites)
User Segment - GPS receiver and an antenna, must be on top of aircraft
How does GPS work what is the process of determining position?
Time required to reach receiver is translated into distance, the receiver will resolve signal arrival time, and corresponding satellite position to determine own position
How many Satellites are required for accurate position?
4
How many Feet in a Statute Mile? How many Feet (Minutes of Latitude) in a Nautical Mile? What is a Knot?
1 SM = 5280 ft
1 NM = 6078 ft (1 min of Latitude)
1 Kt = 1 NM/hr
Out of the 4 elements of maps (Area, Shape, Bearing, Distance), how many can be preserved in one map?
A max of 3 of the 4 elements can be preserved, at least one must be distorted
What are the 2 Map Projections that are used in Aviation charts/maps?
Lambert Conformal Conic
Transverse Mercator
What are some Properties of the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection?
Meridians are straight lines converging toward pole
Parallels curved away from near pole
Scale is accurate over map
Straight line between 2 points represents a Great Circle
What Aeronautical Charts use the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection?
VFR Navigation Charts (VNC) and IFR Enroute Charts (LO or HI)
What are some properties of the Transverse Mercator Projection?
Meridians converge toward pole
Parallels curve away from nearer pole
Curvature is low
Accurate only on one meridian
What Aeronautical Chart uses this Projection?
VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA)
What is the difference between a VFR Navigation Chart (VNC) and a VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA)?
VNC - Used for low level, low speed navigation, names based on principal landmark, scale is 1:500,000, or 1” = 8 SM
VTA - Used for navigation around busy terminal areas, published for control purposes, frequencies and airspace classification shown, scale is 1:250,000 or 1” = 4 SM
Understand how to read both a VNC and a VTA
Yes Sir
What are some things to consider when selecting a route to fly?
Select a route with landmarks to navigate with, ensure airspace is safe, terrain is safe, is a fuel stop required, do we have the correct equipment to fly through the airspace
Lost Procedures:
- Look for landmarks
- Climb higher for view
- Read name off water tower
- Request Radar assistance
- VOR, ADF, or GPS
- Circle of uncertainty
- Right hand triangular pattern in radar airspace
What are the 2 different types of ARCAL systems?
Type J - Key mic 5 times, lights for 15 minutes
Type K - Key mic 7 times, can adjust intensity
How do you make Simple Conversions on the E6B?
Line up units to be converted using the arrows on the inner and outer scale, find number to be converted on inner or outer scale, and read corresponding value
How do you find Groundspeed on the E6B?
Find distance on outer scale, and line up with time on inner scale, answer is across from rate pointer
How do you find Distance on the E6B?
Place ground speed opposite the rate pointer, time on inner scale, read answer across from time on outer scale
How do you find Time on the E6B?
Place Ground Speed opposite the Rate Pointer, outer scale is distance, and inside is time
How do we convert between IAS and CAS?
POH
How do you find True Altitude?
- Find Pressure Altitude
- Subtract Station Altitude from Calibrated Altitude
- Using Altitude Window, set Pressure Altitude opposite OAT
- On inside scale find difference between Station and Calibrated Altitude, read number opposite on outer scale, this is correction factor
- Add correction factor to your station altitude, this is true altitude
What is True Track, True Heading, True Airspeed, Ground Speed, Wind Direction, Wind Speed, Drift, and Vector?
True Track - Line representing path of aircraft over ground
True Heading - Direction aircraft’s nose is pointed
True Airspeed - Speed of aircraft through the air
Ground Speed - Speed of aircraft over ground
Wind Direction - Direction wind is blowing
Wind Speed - How fast the wind is blowing
Drift - Difference between desired track and actual track over ground
Vector - Line representing magnitude and direction
Understand how to work the Wind Side of the E6B
Yes Sir
Describe the 3 different Departure Procedures:
Geographic Set Heading Point - Easily identifiable from a distance, far enough away to allow aircraft to climb to cruise, positioned near intended track, can’t be used over featureless terrain
Overhead Departure - Used when airport is surrounded by featureless terrain, aircraft climbs in vicinity of field and sets heading overhead airport, no progress toward destination, time and fuel used during climb
En-Route Departure - Takeoff and turn to heading that will intercept track at 45° angle, time and fuel saved, very difficult to position
What is a Double Track Error?
Can only be used up to 1/2 way point, Estimate angle off track, and time spent off track, double the error and fly the opposite heading for the same amount of time spent drifting, once time is up fly half the error
What is Opening / Closing Angles?
Can be used before or after 1/2 way point, Estimate both the opening and closing angles, add these together and turn towards track by this many degrees
What is Visual Alteration?
Can be used at any point along track, find a landmark on track line ahead of aircraft, fly to landmark, when overhead, turn back to original heading, but correct for drift
If an aircraft is 4 miles off track after 30 miles, what is the track error?
8°
What are 5 Arrival Procedures to Follow?
Radio Calls Estimating when to descend/checks Review Circuit Joining Procedures Use of CFS Close Flight Plan
What are 3 Options if you cannot land at the intended airport?
Return to Departure Point
Go Somewhere Else
Land in a Field
What is the procedure for Returning to Departure Point?
Fly reciprocal of your current track, remember to apply wind corrections in opposite direction
What are the 3 Phases of Navigation?
Flight Planning
In-Flight Reference
En-Route Observations
What are some things associated with the Flight Planning portion of Navigation?
Determine Magnetic Heading, Ground Speed, Time between Aerodromes, Fuel Consumption. Need to use Wind, Distance, True and Magnetic Tracks to Determine
Provide reference to Radio Frequencies, NOTAMs, Circuit Procedures, En-Route Altitudes
What should be done during the In-Flight Reference portion of Navigation?
Copy important information for quick reference during flight (altitude, not magnetic variation), shows compass headings particular to aircraft
What should be done during the En-Route Observations portion of Navigation?
Record details about Track, Corrections, Times, and other important notes/observations, some can be filled in before flight
What are the definitions of a Cycle, Wave Length, Amplitude, Frequency, Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Attenuation, and Ionosphere?
Cycle - Interval between any 2 points measures completion of a single wave
Wave Length - Length of one wave in metres
Amplitude - Strength of one wave, decreases with distance from transmitting site
Frequency - Number of cycles per second (Hz, kHz, MHz, GHz)
Reflection - Change in direction of travel of a wave occurs at surface separating 2 different media (Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection)
Refraction - Bending of wave as it passes from one medium to another, or through medium varying in density
Diffraction - Bending which occurs when a wave grazes the edge of a solid object through which it cannot pass
Attenuation - Loss of wave energy as it travels through a medium
Ionosphere - Layer of rarified ionized gas caused by UV solar radiation, 60-200 miles above Earth vary according to number of factors
What are the 3 types of Waves that can be emitted by a transmitting site?
Ground Waves - Follow surface of Earth, not subject to ionospheric interference or weather, suffers from surface attenuation proportional to frequency (Lower Frequencies = Less Attenuation)
Space Waves - Radiation travel directly into space
Sky Waves - Reflected or refracted from ionosphere, continues to reflect between Earth and sky until completely attenuated, distance between end of useful ground wave and point where sky wave is returned to Earth (Skip Zone)
What are the 8 Radio Frequency Categories?
Very Low (VLF) - 3 kHz - 30 kHz Low (LF) - 30 kHz - 300 kHz Medium (MF) - 300 kHz - 3 MHz High (HF) - 3 MHz - 30 MHz Very High (VHF) - 30 MHz - 300 MHz Ultra High (UHF) - 300 MHz - 3 GHz Super High (SHF) - 3 GHz - 30 GHz Extremely High (EHF) - 30 GHz - 300 GHz
What Frequencies have Ground Waves, Sky Waves, and Space Waves?
Ground Waves - VLF, LF, MF
Sky Waves - HF
Space Waves - VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF (Line of Sight Transmission, not affected by time, season, precipitation, atmospheric conditions)
Formula for Reception Distance:
1.23 x sqrt (Altitude above Ground)
What Frequencies are VORs allocated?
108.1 - 117.95 MHz
What 2 Signals do VORs transmit?
Reference Phase
Variable Phase
How many degrees does a VOR rotate in 1 second?
36°
What are the beams that radiate from a VOR station called?
Radials
What are the 3 Functions of a VOR?
Omni Bearing Selector (OBS) - Selects desired radial Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) - Shows position relative to selected radial (Each dot is 2 degrees to a max of 10 degrees off course) Sense Indicator (TO/FROM) - Indicates whether on TO or FROM side of VOR
How do you fly directly to a VOR?
- Tune proper frequency
- Use IDENT to confirm Morse code
- Rotate OBS to TO indication
- Rotate OBS until CDI centres with TO indication
- Fly heading under OBS indicator
- Adjust heading as needed to keep CDI centered
How do you find your exact position using 2 VOR sites?
- Tune and identify VOR A
- Centre needle with a FROM indication, OBS is the radial the aircraft is on
- Draw a line on your map from the centre of the VOR through the indicated radial
- Repeat for VOR B
- Position is where lines intersect
What are 4 ways to test a VOR?
VOR Test Facility (VOT) - Sends out 360° radial, must be within 4°
VOR Check Point - Must be within 4°
Dual VOR - Must be within 4°
Airborne VOR Check - Over a known fix or landmark, must be within 6°
What are the 4 different VOR Facilities?
Stand Alone VOR - Radial information only
VOR/DME
TACAN - Similar to VOR uses UHF and is for military use, always has a DME
VORTAC - TACAN with a VOR
What are the Frequencies used for Automatic Direction Finders (ADF)?
190-415 kHz and 510-535 kHz
What are the Frequencies used for Automatic Direction Finders (ADF)?
190-415 kHz and 510-535 kHz
When is the reception the greatest for an ADF?
At low altitudes and over long distances because it is not line of sight dependent - follows the curvature of the Earth
How does an ADF work?
Similar to portable AM radio, will give strong signals at reciprocal directions, electronics figure out the direction to face, and this will drive the needle of the instrument
What is the equation you must remember when working with ADFs?
Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing TO the Station
How do you navigate towards an ADF?
- Tune desired frequency on ADF radio
- Listen to ident to confirm Morse code
- Return function switch to ADF position
How do you find your position using two ADFs?
- Tune and identify NDB X
- Read relative bearing of bearing needle
- Use the formula to find bearing to the station
- Calculate reciprocal bearing to obtain bearing from the station
- On a map, draw a straight line from NDB X
- Repeat for NDB Y
- Position is where lines intersect
How do you do an ADF Ground Check?
Identify station and confirm correct relative bearing, change mode to “ANT”, and confirm correct behaviour, Change mode to “ADF” and confirm needle returns to correct bearing, During instrument checks, ADF should swing to track station during turns
What are the errors associated with ADFs?
Night Effect Mountain Effect Static Interference Bank Error Quadrantal Error Coastal Error Needle Oscillations
What type of Frequencies does GPS transmit on?
UHF
How does the receiver and satellite communicate?
Satellite sends signals
Receiver determines how long signal takes to reach it
Speed of radio wave is known, distance can be determined
Triangular position, determine track and groundspeed
How many satellites are needed to determine position?
4
What is a DME?
Distance Measuring Equipment (UHF range)
What is the allowance for a DME to be off by?
0.5 NM
What is the main error in DMEs?
Slant range error - Greatest at high altitude close to station
How does RADAR work?
Short pulses of super high frequency energy fired from transmitter, strike aircraft and reflect back to sender, can compute distance since speed is known, this info is on controller’s screen
What is the difference between Primary Surveillance Radar and Secondary Surveillance Radar?
Primary Surveillance Radar - No equipment on board, used to monitor airport and terminal areas
Secondary Surveillance Radar - Requires a transponder on the a/c, used by ATC to identify aircraft
What are the 3 Types of Transponders?
Mode A - Replies with 4 digit code
Mode C - Replies with code plus pressure altitude (altimeter setting does nothing)
Mode S - Replies with code, altitude, aircraft registration and other data
What is the Transponder Code for VFR below 12,500’ and what is it above this altitude?
1200 Below
1400 Above
List the 3 Special Use Transponder Codes:
7500 - Hijacking/Unlawful Interference
7600 - Communication Failure
7700 - Emergency
What is a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)?
Incorporates an ADF/VOR with a magnetic compass or a heading indicator
