Nationalism & Decolonisation Flashcards
what is nationalism?
a certain consciousness of difference and a need to seek unity in order to win or to feel at home (Amutabi, 2018)
which scholar defined nationalism as “a certain consciousness of difference and a need to seek unity in order to win or to feel at home”
Amutabi, 2018
which scholar defined nations as “imagined political communities”?
Anderson, 1991
how does Anderson define a ‘nation’?
“an imagined political community” (Anderson, 1991)
depicts a nation as a socially-constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of a group
why, in defining ‘nation’, does Anderson use ‘imagined’ and ‘community’?
‘imagined’ because members of the community will never know most of their fellow-members, but they may have similar interests or identity and they hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity (Anderson, 1991)
‘community’ because regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may exist, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship (Anderson, 1991)
what role does the media play in Anderson’s imagined communities?
Anderson focuses on the way media creates imagined communities, especially the power of print media in shaping an individual’s social psyche
e.g. written word, a tool used by churches, authors, and media companies (notably books, newspapers, and magazines), as well as governmental tools such as the map, the census, and the museum
what was the purpose of the (media) tools used in Anderson’s imagined communities?
creating deep horizontal links
tools were all built to target and define a mass audience in the public sphere through dominant images, ideologies, and language
what were the origins of Anderson’s political communities?
racist & colonial origins of these practices
creation of imagined communities became possible because of “print capitalism” - a common discourse (vernacular) emerged
what were the origins of nationalism?
anti-colonial movements
nationalism’s origins are against external intervention & it still plays that role today
- e.g. national sports teams
- classic nationalist rhetoric is painting ‘the other’ as a threat
despite there not being one particular grievance responsible for the rise of nationalism in Africa, it often stems from land disputes, poor education for Africans, discriminatory labour policies & religious oppression (Amutabi, 2017)
these struggles united Africans against a common enemy
give some examples of the grievances that Amutabi offers as playing into the origins of nationalism.
despite there not being one particular grievance responsible for the rise of nationalism in Africa, it often stems from land disputes, poor education for Africans, discriminatory labour policies & religious oppression (Amutabi, 2017)
- e.g. in Kenya, there were “White Highlands”, where only white people were allowed to own land - led to Kenya Land Freedom Army or Mau Mau engaging in reactionary sabotage, targeting isolated white farms (Amutabi, 2017)
- e.g. Kenya and other settler colonies often excluded Africans from good schools and universities while missionary schools promoted obedience and service for the colony (Amutabi, 2017)
- e.g. Christian missionaries condemned African culture; causes for breaking away included resistance to the restrictions on indigenous customs and traditions (intonjane (female circumcision/genital mutilation), lobola (dowry) and polygamy)
what was the nature of anti-colonial nationalisms?
often about gaining control of former colonial states
- goal was to take over externally imposed state & use it to impose black-majority interests
run by intellectual politicians & iconic male elites (e.g Nkrumah, Nyerere, Mugabe, Kenyatta, etc)
- iconic male leaders at helm of nationalist movement
- often urban-based, males who were intellectual politicians who had studied in the West (multiple masters degrees, books, etc)
involve ideas (often anti-colonial)
all focus on state action in different capacities
- e.g. African socialism involved nationalising assets, envisaging key role for state in driving economic development
- e.g. state capitalism viewed state as biggest economic agent with regular state intervention
which scholar said of nationalist politics, “even within individual countries, it was not a homogeneous movement, but a patchwork, linking together diverse & often divergent interests”
Dorman, 2019
what are the various different types of nationalisms outlined by Amutabi?
types: local nationalism, regional nationalism, nation-state nationalism, Black nationalism, pan-African nationalism (Amutabi, 2018)
define the various types of nationalisms outlined by Amutabi.
local nationalism: ethnic dimensions, responsible for ethnic tensions & civil wars
regional nationalism: regions have similar interests
nation-state nationalism: emerged in modern states in Africa & brought together different ethnic groups, supported by Nkrumah & Nyerere
continental nationalism, black nationalism, pan-Africanism: reaction against foreigners & invaders, incorporated people on the continent & in the Black diaspora, supported by Selassie of Ethiopia & Nkrumah of Ghana
why have there been different phases and uses of nationalism?
there have been different phases & uses of nationalism as global landscape has shifted and African trajectory changed
describe the development of changing types of nationalism in Africa.
nationalism started at local nationalism level as precursor to nation-state and pan-African nationalism
- e.g. case of Buganda demonstrates this form of nationalism borne out of colonial occupation in which the local forces coalesced and united to resist white rule
local nationalism reflects important role of identity
- blackness became major indicator of unity in African nationalist consciousness
from this came Black nationalism
- reaction against foreigners and invaders, a response to “imperial incursions”, “colonial overtures and oppression” and to the “racism and the prejudice of the 19th and 20th centuries” (Amutabi, 2017)
- incorporated those not only on the continent but cast wider net to include the entire Black diaspora
connection to Getachew’s theory of nationalism as worldmaking
- ambitions of leaders of anticolonial nationalist movements were not simply about their nation-state, they were also about reformulating international relations of state and transforming conditions of international hierarchy (Getachew, 2019)
what does Alexander (2017) mean by transnational with regard to liberation movements?
recognition that struggles for liberation in African states were not confined within individual nations but were influenced by & connected to broader movements, networks & ideologies transcending specific geopolitical borders
liberation movements often drew inspiration, resources & support from beyond their own countries
diplomacy by African states & liberation movements crucial to maintaining flows of weapons, material aid & humanitarian support - shaped terms of peace & political transition
worked with each other across borders (Zambians hosted Zimbabweans, SA based in Namibia)
in what ways were liberation movements transnational?
struggles for liberation in African states were not confined within individual nations but were influenced by & connected to broader movements, networks & ideologies transcending specific geopolitical borders
movements often drew inspiration, resources & support from beyond their own countries
diplomacy by African states & liberation movements crucial to maintaining flows of weapons, material aid & humanitarian support - shaped terms of peace & political transition
- truism that independence struggles were fought not only on the battlefield but around the negotiating table & within international institutions
- actors used privileged access to transnational networks to accumulate legitimacy & power
worked with each other across borders
- e.g. Zambians hosted Zimbabweans, SA based in Namibia
what is the significance of diplomacy play in the transnational liberation struggle?
diplomacy by African states & liberation movements crucial to maintaining flow of weapons, material aid & humanitarian support - shaped terms of peace & political transition
truism that independence struggles were fought not only on the battlefield but around the negotiating table & within international institutions
actors used privileged access to transnational networks to accumulate legitimacy & power
which scholar introduces the idea of the transnational histories of liberation?
Alexander, 2017
what do White & Larmer (2014) mean by unnational quality of liberation movements?
underscores how much of national liberation took place in & between spaces that were categorically different from the national frame
focuses on the fragmentation & contestation of national identities & borders within liberation movements (internal divisions)
how were liberation movements unnational?
much of national liberation took place in & between spaces that were categorically different from the national frame
there was fragmentation & contestation of national identities & borders within liberation movements
e.g. tendency to attribute the ANC’s success not to its military action but to ‘the capacity to hold together this diverse and scattered movement’, alongside its ‘ability to project itself at home and abroad as the custodian of South African liberation’
give an example of the unnational nature of liberation movements.
tendency to attribute the ANC’s success not to its military action but to ‘the capacity to hold together this diverse and scattered movement’, alongside its ‘ability to project itself at home and abroad as the custodian of South African liberation’
which scholars introduce the unnational nature of liberation movements?
White & Larmer, 2014
what are National Liberation Movements (NLMs)?
armed national movements
what distinguishes NLMs from nationalist movements?
NLMs more organisationally & theoretically advanced than nationalist movements
- due to higher level of popular participation & more diverse social strata recording their desire for change
- had legitimacy conferred upon them by Organisation of African Unity (OAU) so were formally recognised as liberation movements