Mountains Flashcards
1
Q
In how many countries do mountains occur?
A
3/4 of the world’s countries
2
Q
Where are mountains found?
A
Every climate, continent and ocean
3
Q
Who was James Ussher and what did he claim?
A
An early Christian scholar who attempted to calculate a beginning date for Earth (9am, Monday, Oct 23rd 4004BC) 1600-1800
4
Q
To the Christian imagination, how old is the earth?
A
6000 years old
5
Q
Who was Thomas Burnet and what did he do?
A
Coordinated ‘The Grand Tour’ involving a crossing of the European Alps. He noticed broken rock debris ‘wild, vast and indigested heaps of stone and earth’ causing him to question how mountains came to be.
6
Q
What was Thomas Burnet’s theory?
A
The bible describes an account of the earth flooding to cover even the highest mountain tops. However, even in Genesis, 40 days of rain is barely enough to bring water to the feet of the mountains. Thus Burnet theorized that if there had to have been less water, then there also must have been lower mountains. AKA, that mountains were created by the flood.
7
Q
What is the Mundane Egg theory?
A
Burnet proposed that the earth had once been a flawless sphere without hills or valleys. The yolk of the egg was the earth’s centre and the white of the egg was a water-filled abyss on which the shell of the earth floated. He deemed that the sun dried out the surface of the earth and cracks in the surface caused the resulting flood and when the waters receded they left ‘a world lying in its rubbish’ (mountains).
8
Q
When did the first significant extension of the earth’s age (6000yrs) occur and by whom?
A
French natural historian: George Buffon (estimated earth to be 75,000 years old)
9
Q
In the 1800’s, what were the two schools of thinking around geologists regarding the age of the earth?
A
Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism
10
Q
What is Catastrophism?
A
People who believed the surface of the earth was formed by major geophysical revolutions (tidal waves, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanoes).
11
Q
What is Uniformitarianism?
A
Belief that earth had never been subject to a global catastrophe - change of the earth had been achieved very slowly.
12
Q
What is the foundation of the Uniformitarian Theory?
A
The present is the key to the past (should we live for eons, we would see the earth completely change).
13
Q
Who was Charles Lyell?
A
A Scottish geologist (1900), wrote ‘the principles of geology’. Influenced Charles Darwin. He introduced the concept of uniformitarianism.
14
Q
How old is the Burges Shale site?
A
500 million years old (Cambrian explosions)
15
Q
What is unique about the Burges Shale (Oho National Park, beside Banff National Park)?
A
Fossils here preserved the soft tissues of organisms, not just shells.
16
Q
In what century was the popular perception of deep time accepted?
A
18th century
17
Q
Who was Alfred Wegener and what did he do?
A
German meteorologist who claimed that the continents move and that Pangea once existed.
18
Q
What were Wegener’s arguments that Pangea existed?
A
That the continents once fit together like a jigsaw puzzle, and that there were comparative fossils within areas that would’ve once been together.
19
Q
What is Paleomagnetism?
A
The study of the earth’s magnetic field - reaffirmed Wegener’s theory.
20
Q
What is the concept of Plate Tectonics?
A
The earth’s surface is divided into several rigid plates, made up of the earth crust and a bit of the mantle layer (Lithosphere), comprised of both continental and oceanic crusts.
21
Q
What is the Lithosphere?
A
The earth’s crust and the upper mantle.
22
Q
What is the Asthenosphere?
A
The earth’s malleable inner layer - under the Lithosphere.
23
Q
What is the Mantle?
A
Encases the hot core of the earth.
24
Q
Compare and contrast ocean tectonic plates versus continental tectonic plates.
A
Ocean plates are thinner and denser (<100km thick), continental are less dense but thicker (150-200km thick).
25
How fast are the tectonic plates moving?
1-10cm/year (as fast as fingernails grow).
26
Why does the Lithosphere move?
Convection in the earth's Mantle - hot material rises, and cold mantle rock sinks.
27
What is it called when oceanic plates versus continental plates pull apart?
Oceanic Spreading ridges, continental rift zones.
28
What happens at divergent plate boundaries?
Hot magma rises up and solidifies, further pushing the plates apart.
29
What is the most well-known under-sea mountain range?
The mid-Atlantic ridge (runs between the continents, down the Atlantic (North-South)).
30
Which country is technically part of the mid-Atlantic ridge?
Iceland
31
The East African Rift is between which two tectonic plates?
The African plate and the Somalian plate.
32
What is formed when plates diverge?
Volcanoes.
33
What happens when an ocean plate collides with a continental plate?
The more dense ocean plate is SUBDUCTED beneath the more buoyant continental plate.
34
What happens to subducted plates?
They re-heat and form volcanoes along the plates margins.
35
What is the Pacific Ring of Fire?
An area around the Pacific Ocean boundary where plate collision and subduction has created volcanoes around the ring.
36
What happens when two continental plates collide?
One cannot subduct, so large mountain ranges are formed.
37
How were the Himalayas formed? This range is between which two continental plates?
Continental plate collision between the Indian Subcontinent and the Eurasian Plate.
38
What is responsible for producing earthquakes?
Tectonic plate collision zones.
39
What is a transform margin?
The third type of plate margin in which plates glide along one another in opposite directions.
40
How was the San Andreas Fault created?
A transform margin between the North American and Pacific plates sliding along one another.
41
How were the San Gabriel Mountains of Southern California created?
A transform margin.
42
What are the 4 main types of mountains?
Volcanic mountains, convergent mountains, fault-block mountains, and dome mountains.
43
How are volcanic mountains formed?
Magma moves forcefully to the earth surface, erupts and accumulates on the earth’s surface (lava).
44
What three basic tectonic regions are volcanoes associated with?
Rift-Valley Spreading Centres (divergent), Convergent boundaries (ring of fire), Above intra-plate hotspots.
45
What is unique about hotspot volcanism?
It occurs within tectonic plates and isn’t related to plate boundaries (plume remains in place while the crust of the earth glides across causing a chain of progressively older volcanoes).
46
The Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean are an example of?
Hotspot volcanism.
47
What mountain resides on Hawaii? What is significant about this mountain?
Mauna Kea - highest mountain in the world as measured from base to peak.
48
What is the most common type of mountain?
Convergent mountains/Orogens (Himalayas, Andes and European Alps (active)).
49
Describe a Syncline.
A specific pattern of folded rock between two convergent plates in which younger rock is folded between two areas of older rock.
50
Describe an Anticline.
A specific pattern of folded rock between two convergent plates in which older rock is brought up between portions of younger rock.
51
What is the term for an anticline or a syncline lying on its side?
Recumbent.
52
What is the term for a gently sloping fault where older rock has been pushed over younger, higher rocks?
Thrust fault (forms a mountain).
53
What is an imbricate thrust fault?
Where old and new rock is stacked upon or beside each other forming a pattern.
54
The shaping of mountains depends on which two factors?
The constructing power of tectonics and the destructive agents of erosion.
55
How are fault-block mountains formed?
When faults in the earth’s crust allow some portions to sink and others to rise as opposed to the earth bending and crushing under pressure (Eg. American Rockies).
56
What type of mountain is the Teton Range?
Located in Wyoming, a fault-block mountain.
57
How quickly is the Teton range rising?
1 foot/300 years.
58
How are dome mountains formed?
A large amount of magma pushes up against the earth’s crust, without erupting. Areas around the dome remain flat. After years of erosion, the dome-shaped cool magma can be shown through the earth’s surface.
59
The Stoney Nakoda First Nations were sometimes referred to as?
The people of the shining mountains.
60
What is the difference between climate and weather?
Weather is the day to day variability in atmospheric conditions (variable), whereas climate is the long term average of weather and its extremes (predictable).
61
What are the atmospheric conditions responsible for weather?
Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, wind, air pressure.
62
What are the three primary forces determining mountain climates?
Latitude (distance from equator), elevation, and continentality (proximity to large water bodies).
63
Why are climates warmer near the equator versus at higher latitudes?
Solar radiation hits the equator directly, allowing it to condense near the equator, whereas at higher latitudes, the radiation is dispersed over a greater area.
64
Where is seasonality greatest?
At higher latitudes.
65
What three factors cause seasonality?
The tilt of the earth on its axis, the revolution of the earth around the sun, and the greater variation in solar radiation.
66
Relative to the sun, at what angle is the earth tilted?
The earth is tilted at 23.5 degrees.
67
Where does solar radiation strike the earth most directly during summer in the northern hemisphere?
The Tropic of Cancer - Lat 23.5 degrees north.
68
Where does solar radiation strike the earth most directly during summer in the southern hemisphere?
The Tropic of Capricorn.
69
What is atmospheric pressure?
The downward movement of compressed, cool air caused by gravity pulling particles towards the earth.
70
How might lower air density affect atmospheric pressure?
When there’s lower air density, there is also less atmospheric pressure.
71
How is wind generated?
Air tends to move along pressure gradients from areas of high pressure to low pressure (wind).
72
What is the intertropical convergence zone? How does this affect the flow of air around the earth?
An area of low pressure created by high temperatures along the equator. Air flows from areas of higher latitudes, towards the equator. At the same time hot air from the equator rises and moves towards the poles forming circulation cells.
73
What are circulation cells?
Belts that circle the earth in which prevailing winds occur.
74
How many circulation cells are within each hemisphere?
Hadley cells (hot air beginning in the equator and descending in the subtropics before returning), circulation cells at mid-latitude and another set at high latitudes (cold winds flowing towards equator meeting warm winds).
75
What is the coriolis effect?
As the earth rotates, the path that the winds are moving around the earth appears to be deflected (they don’t go straight up and down).
76
The direction to which the winds are deflected due to the coriolis effect depends on what?
Which hemisphere you’re in - Northern hemisphere, winds appear to be deflected to the right, whereas in the southern hemisphere, winds are deflected to the left. The earth rotates clockwise when viewed from the South Pole.
77
What are the trade winds?
Winds flowing toward the equator in the Hadley cells.
78
What are the westerlies?
Winds in the middle cells, blowing from the west towards the east and upwards towards the poles.
79
What are the polar easterlies?
Higher latitude cells that blow from the east towards the west and towards the equator.
80
What type of weather is associated with places of low atmospheric pressure?
Cloudiness and high levels of precipitation (hot air rising, cooling and undergoing condensation).
81
What type of weather is associated with areas of high atmospheric pressure?
Clear, dry skies.
82
What do the Himalayas and the Andes have in common in terms of climate?
They are both located in high-pressure zones - around 30 degrees north - which means they are located in a relatively dry and clear climate.
83
What do Mount Kilimanjaro (East Africa) and Kinabalu (Borneo) have in common in terms of climate?
Both are located at the equator, in low pressure zones.
84
Why are there typically cooler climates in mountain ranges?
Because temperatures decrease with elevation.
85
The atmosphere screens out what type of radiation?
Ultraviolet radiation.
86
Why doesn’t greater exposure to radiation result in higher temperatures with elevation?
Radiation passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth. Because mountains are relatively small compared to the land around them, they have little influence on the temperature of the atmosphere.
87
What is the mountain mass effect?
When large mountains together affect regional climate.
88
How does weather differ in mountains based on their continentality?
More continental mountains (more inland) have more variable weather patterns, less precipitation and less cloudiness as opposed to coastal mountains which are regulated by water (water reflects more of the sun's radiation rather than absorbing it which helps regulate temperatures) which have more precipitation and cloudiness.
89
What is orographic precipitation?
When geologic barriers (mountains) cause air to rise, cool and precipitate.
90
What are different mountain aspects called in relation to the wind?
Windward side (direction of wind, more precip), leeward side (dryer, rain-shadow).
91
What is a chinook wind?
Warm air flowing down the leeward side of a mountain.
92
What are the three local climate drivers of mountains?
Slope aspect, angle of a slope, and elevation.
93
What are different mountain aspects called in relation to the wind?
Windward side (direction of wind, more precip), Leeward side (dryer, rain-shadow).
94
What is a chinook wind?
Warm air flowing down the Leeward side of a mountain.
95
What are the three local climate drivers of mountains?
Slope aspect, Angle of a slope, and topography.
96
How is mountain climate influenced by slope aspect?
Mountain slopes oriented towards the sun receive more solar radiation leading to warmer climates (South-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and north-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere).
97
How does mountain slope affect mountain climate?
Near the equator, mountain slopes receive less solar radiation than flat surfaces. At increasingly higher latitudes, steeper slopes receive more solar radiation - increased with increasing slope angle.
98
At what point does slope angle no longer result in greater radiation being received?
When the slope angle exceeds the latitude location of the mountain (At 45 degrees south, max radiation is received on mountain slopes that are at a 45 degree angle).
99
What is a temperature inversion?
When temperatures in the valley adjacent to the mountain are less than temperatures at the peak (cold air sinks and pools in the valley where it cannot be heated by direct radiation).
100
What are microclimates?
Small areas with climates that differ from the surrounding regions.
101
What is the primary cause of alpine tree lines?
At high elevations, temperatures remain cold during a tree's growing season. A tree requires a minimum of 3 months at temperatures higher than 6 degrees Celsius to grow.
102
What is a Krummholz?
A type of vegetation in which trees at higher elevations grow shorter and sometimes horizontally.
103
What is flagging?
A type of krummholz formation in which trees grow with limbs only on one side in response to the prevailing winds of that region.
104
What factors influence treeline?
Latitude and slope (influencing the amount of solar radiation; higher at lower latitudes and higher on southern slopes in the northern hemisphere) and continentality.
105
Why do mountains of greater continentality have higher tree lines?
Less cloud cover (higher levels of radiation) and mountain mass effect (better for retaining heat).
106
What is an ecotone?
A transitional zone between biomes (e.g., tree-line).
107
What is the transition between forest and alpine tundra called?
Alpine tree-line ecotone.
108
How does local topography influence treeline?
Snow accumulation in valleys can prevent the establishment of seedlings; ridges at high elevations are more so found to be snow-free which enables the growth of trees.
109
How might an inverted treeline be developed? Where is this phenomenon seen?
In places of inversion, where cold air accumulates in valleys and warm air is higher at the peaks. This is seen in the Australian Alps.
110
What are the two main physiological changes that help humans live at high altitude?
Increased ventilation and increased red blood cells.
111
What are the negative consequences of being at high altitude?
Increased blood and lung pressure and increased susceptibility to acute high altitude sickness.
112
How many high-altitude climbers are affected by acute high altitude sickness?
50-60%.
113
How many liters of blood per minute do we circulate?
5L/min.
114
How much relative oxygen is transported by hemoglobin?
97% (3% plasma).
115
How many protein molecules are in 1 hemoglobin? How many oxygens can be carried by these proteins?
Hemoglobin is made up of 4 proteins and each can carry 1 oxygen molecule.
116
What is meant by oxygen saturation?
The percentage of hemoglobin molecules that have oxygen attached to them.
117
Why does breathing become more difficult at higher altitudes?
As elevation increases, there’s decreased atmospheric pressure which means there is less oxygen per ventilation.
118
What is atmospheric pressure?
The pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere.
119
When was atmospheric pressure first measured and by who?
1643 - Evangelista Torricelli (mercury barometer).
120
How does a mercury barometer work?
There’s a tube with an open bottom in a container of mercury. As atmospheric pressure increases, it pushes down on the mercury in the container and results in pushing up the mercury in the tube.
121
When and what happened in the experiment by Blaise Pascal?
1648 - Blaise Pascal hypothesized that atmospheric pressure decreased with altitude. They measured pressure on top and at the bottom of a mountain.
122
What is the significance of the Puy de Dome mountain in France?
This is the mountain on which Blaise Pascal measured atmospheric pressure.
123
What are the components of air?
78% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen.
124
The rate at which oxygen diffuses into the blood depends on which two properties?
Surface area of the alveoli and the concentration gradient (but mostly on the gradient).
125
What is a partial pressure?
The pressure that a gas exerts, independent of other gases (e.g., O2 pp is 21%).
126
How do the partial pressures of oxygen and CO2 change at higher altitudes versus at sea level?
The partial pressure of oxygen is much less at higher altitudes, while the partial pressure of CO2 is relatively similar at higher altitudes relative to sea level (the concentration gradient of O2 between the lungs and arteries is reduced, decreasing the rate of diffusion and thus less hemoglobin saturation).
127
What is hypoxia?
A condition in which our tissues are deprived of oxygen.
128
What is acclimatization?
When physiological responses in our body help us to adjust to different environments.
129
What are the immediate physiological responses at high altitudes?
Increased ventilation, increased tidal volume, increased heart rate.
130
What is THE primary response to hypoxia? Why?
Increasing tidal volume - more efficient.
131
Where is Mount Evan’s? How much does its elevation reduce work capacity?
Colorado - by 25%.
132
How high is the 'death zone'?
Above 8000 meters above sea level.
133
Who were James Glaisher and Henry Tracey Coxwell? What did they do?
They were scientists who wanted to study the effects of high altitude. They went into a hot air balloon and rose to above 8000 meters in less than an hour. Glaisher became very sick and even lost his vision.
134
How many mountains in the world are over 8000 meters?
14.
135
At what elevation does Acute Mountain Sickness affect 1/4 people?
Above 2500 meters.
136
What is the most common symptom of AMS?
Headache.
137
What factors increase the likelihood that someone will get AMS?
Higher altitudes and increased rate of ascent increase physical activity.
138
What is the rate of climbing (rule of thumb) for climbing at high altitude?
Increasing altitude by 300-500 meters per day.
139
Why is the saying 'climb high, sleep low' important?
The risk of AMS increases when you sleep, because the rate of breathing decreases.
140
What drug helps to prevent AMS? How does it work?
Acetazolamide - increases your breathing rate and can help when sleeping.
141
What is High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)?
A more serious condition caused by hypoxia in which fluid accumulates in the brain.
142
What is High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)?
A more serious condition caused by hypoxia, in which fluid accumulates in the lungs.
143
How many people live at altitudes above 2500 meters?
140 million.
144
What adaptations are seen in people who live at high altitudes?
Increased lung volume (increased alveoli SA), increased blood vessel diameter, faster and deeper breathing, ability to carry more oxygen per blood cell.
145
What adaptations are seen in the Andean Highlanders? Are these permanent adaptations?
Increased number of red blood cells and increased hemoglobin concentrations. This is considered reversible acclimatization.
146
What adaptations are seen in the Tibetan Highlanders? Are these permanent adaptations?
Normal RBC and hemoglobin concentrations, but have increased blood vessel diameter and breathe faster and more deeply. These are permanent adaptations.
147
What are the adaptations of Ethiopian Highlanders?
Improved cardiac tolerance to hypoxia (Endothelin receptor type-b) - but scientists are still uncertain.
148
Are highlanders immune from chronic mountain sickness?
No.
149
What is chronic mountain sickness?
Increased production of red blood cells, making the blood viscous and sticky. Happens after years of living at high altitude. Increased work of the heart.
150
Why is CMS commonly found in Andean populations but not Tibetans?
Because the Andean population are often found to have higher red blood cell concentrations while the adaptations that allow Tibetans to live at high altitudes are increased blood vessel diameter and breathing frequency.
151
Where is the Pyramid International Laboratory/Observatory located?
Kumba valley, Nepal.
152
Where is the Jungfraujoch Altitude Research Station located?
The Swiss Alps.
153
Where is the Barcroft Station located?
White Mountains, California.
154
Where is the Mount Chacaltaya Laboratory located?
In the Bolivian Andes.
155
Where is Mount Logan?
Kluane National Park, Yukon.
156
Who was Charles Houston?
Worked on Mt Logan and was the first person to identify high altitude pulmonary edema, as well as high altitude retinal hemorrhages.
157
Define Hydrology
The study of water - understanding prescribing and predicting
158
Where is the Nile river?
Eastern Africa (be able to point out in a map)
159
Where is the Rhine River?
Europe (be able to point out on a map)
160
Where is the Indus River
In India and Pakistan
161
Where is the Yangtze River?
China
162
Where is the Mekong Riever?
South-East Asia
163
Where is the Murray River?
Australia
164
Where is the Columbia River?
Western North America
165
Where is the Mississippi River?
South East North America
166
Where is the Amazon River?
South America
167
Where is the source of all of the great rivers?
Mountains
168
Between which two rivers is Mesopotamia?
The Tigris and the Eurphrates Rivers
169
Which river was associated with the ancient civilization in Egypt?
The Nile River
170
Why did ancient civilizations settle around rivers?
Flooding of the rivers made plains for good farming and they had access to water. Also the animals and fish living near the rivers provided a good source of food.
171
Where are hydroelectric dams typically built?
Near the headwaters of the river, where the gradient is steepest.
172
What percentage of BC’s energy demand is met through hydroelectricity?
90%
173
Where is the Colorado river?
Stems from the central Rocky Mountains through Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California and Mexico.
174
How much of the Colorado river is diverted to be used by cities before it reaches the Mexican border?
90%
175
Which sacred river runs from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal?
The River Ganges
176
Describe the hydrologic cycle specific to mountains
Water evaporates from the ocean, where it is carried to the mountains. Once it hits the mountain range it precipitates. Water then flows down the mountains back to the ocean.
177
What is a watershed? How do they regulate ecosystems?
The land that drains into a common water body. The soils in a watershed act as a sponge, soaking up precipitation (infiltration). Infiltration acts to slow run-off during precipitation events (flash-floods) as well as regulate the release of water. This process helps to maintain consistent water supply during dry periods.
178
What is infiltration? How is it affected by vegetation?
When the soils in a watershed act as a sponge the soaks up precipitation. Vegetation in watersheds increases infiltration because it slows surface runoff, allowing water to be soaked into the earth.
179
What are the effects of infiltration on the land?
Minimize erosion and prevents flash-floods.
180
How is water quality improved by watersheds?
Pollutants attach to silt which settles in forests. The soils also helps to filter pollutants and heavy metals.
181
Where are the Catskill Mountains and what happened there?
The Catskill mountains are in the Eastern U.S.. Back in the 1800’s, they cut down all the trees in the watershed of this river. As a result the water (provided to people of New York), wasn’t being filtered properly. They had to rehabilitate the land as a result.
182
What are the three main sources of water in the mountains?
Rain, Snow and Glacier Ice
183
What two different types of systems can cause rain fall in the mountains?
Frontal Rain Fall: Low pressure systems move in and are forced to travel over the mountains
Locally Formed Convective Storms: Formed in afternoons and evenings from strong daytime heating on the landscape which causes evaporation and eventually condensation as the water vapour rises and cools.
184
How do frontal rainfall and convective rainfall differ in terms of their behaviour?
Frontal Rainfall is less intensive and can even show up as a light mist. Its release is also more gradual and delayed. Convective rainfall is more aggressive and can create storms within minutes or hours. It also often includes hail and strong winds.
185
When does frontal precipitation happen? When does convective precipitation happen?
Frontal - any time of the year
Convective - periods that are hot enough to cause strong evaporation during the day (summer)
186
Where are convective storms mainly seen in terms of continentality?
High continental areas (Canadian Rockies)
187
What is the difference between direct and delayed runoff in terms of behaviour?
Direct runoff, isn’t absorbed into the ground and instead travels down the mountain. It can have a large effect on rivers, very quickly by increasing the amount of water.
Delayed runoff is absorbed into the ground where it percolates through the earth. It can contribute to mountain rivers, but is released over days or weeks.
188
Intense rainfall leads to less mountain run-off - true or false?
False - intense rainfall leads to more mountain run-off, as there is too much water to be absorbed by the earth all at once.
189
In the spring, the run of from melting snow is partially dictated by..?
The snows temperature profile
190
Snow resting on the ground is often colder than surface snow - true or false?
False - the top layer of snow insulates the layers closer to the ground, making them warmer than surface snow
191
What is the relationship between snow density and insulation capability?
Denser snow provides less insulation, while less dense snow provides better insulation.
192
Why might late winter rain on snow events lead to flooding?
Because the ground is frozen and can’t absorb the runoff.
193
What determines snow melt?
Time of the season and the temperature
194
What is an Albedo?
A measure of the reflectivity of the surface (snow).
195
Why is there a lag between warming of the atmosphere and snow runoff?
Because the majority of heat produced by the sun is reflected from the surface of the snow.
196
What happens when mountain snow begins to melt?
A positive feedback loop - water (with a lower albedo) begins to build up in the snowpack, which means that less energy is reflected, encouraging more melt.
197
What two factors contribute to reduced albedo in mountain snow pack?
Water (melting runoff) and darker particles (organic material) that absorb more of the suns energy.
198
What are the benefits of glacial melt?
- provides life sustaining water
- keeps stream and river temperatures low which is important for fish species
199
What is rock flour?
Silt
200
What is the relationship between glacial runoff and seasonal snowpack runoff?
Glaciers release water in late summer, when seasonal snowpacks are at a minimum.
201
What is ground water?
Water that fills the pores and spaces in rocks and sediment.
202
What is meant by the saturated zone of ground water?
Areas that are filled with water.
203
What sits on top of the saturated zone?
The water table.
204
When is ground water most essential?
During the winter when snow and glaciers aren’t melting.
205
How does vegetation help determine how runoff moves through the mountain landscape?
Leaves and sticks filter the water coming from the sky by capturing it directly, reducing the amount that hits the ground and slowing the rate at which it falls. Vegetation also removes water directly from the ground through their roots.
206
What is the process by which water is taken in by plants and then evaporated from their leaves and stems back into the atmosphere?
Transpiration.
207
What is evapotranspiration?
When water transpired from plants is combined with water evaporation of the soil.
208
What type of mountain terrain is prone to high rates of erosion by runoff?
Exposed bedrock, loose sediment, high gradient and patchy vegetation
209
Where is the Bow River?
Begins in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, flowing through Alberta and Calgary.
210
What is a Diurnal signal?
A daily signal
211
By mid august, what source is contributing to most of the runoff of the Bow river?
Glacier ice
212
What happens when multiple glaciers terminate in the same trunk valley?
One glacier may block the flow of another, forming a lake.
213
What is a common feature of large glaciated landscapes?
Glaciers flowing off an ice cap into adjacent valleys.
214
What causes a lake formed by glaciers to burst through the blocking glacier?
The buoyancy of ice and water.
215
What are glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)?
Catastrophic flooding caused by overflow or moraine dam bursts.
216
Fill in the blank: Neoglacial Lake Alsek is located in _______.
Kluane National Park in the Yukon.
217
What significant event occurred around 1850 related to the Lowell Glacier?
The glacier blocked the Alsek River, creating a massive lake.
218
What name did the Southern Tutchone give to the Lowell Glacier?
Nàdì, meaning 'fish.'
219
What catastrophic event occurred when the glacial dam broke?
A massive flood that washed away everything in its path.
220
True or False: GLOFs have only occurred in the Yukon.
False.
221
List three countries where GLOFs have caused significant damage.
* Pakistan
* India
* Peru
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What was the result of the GLOF in Pakistan's Karakoram Range in June 2013?
Destruction of a hydroelectric dam.
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What impact did the 2013 floods in Kedarnath, India, have?
Killed several thousand people.
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What was one consequence of GLOFs in Peru’s Cordillera Blanca during the 1940s?
Killed approximately 10,000 people.
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What is happening to the risk of GLOFs due to climate change?
It is increasing due to accelerated glacier retreat.
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Fill in the blank: Imja Tsho is located in the Mount Everest region and has grown significantly since _______.
1962.
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What is the current size of Imja Tsho compared to Olympic-sized swimming pools?
Contains enough water to fill approximately 26,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools.
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What holds back the water of Imja Tsho?
Its terminal moraine.
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What communities are endangered by potential GLOFs from Imja Tsho?
Local Sherpa communities and tourists at Mount Everest staging grounds.
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What are glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)?
Flooding caused by the sudden release of water from a glacial lake
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What active measures have been implemented to mitigate GLOFs?
* Accepting flood risk
* Relocating communities
* Constructing controlled drainage canals
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What monitoring systems have been installed to alert communities of potential floods?
Siren towers
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What critical transportation infrastructure has been reconstructed in response to GLOFs?
Nepal-China Highway with arched bridges
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How many dangerous glacial lakes have been drained or dammed in Peru?
34 lakes
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What methods have been used to reduce the hazard potential of glacial lakes in Peru?
* Artificial dams
* Tunnels
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What are 'legacy pollutants'?
Chemicals that were widely used in the past but are no longer in common use
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What is an example of a legacy pollutant?
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
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How do legacy pollutants travel to polar and high-altitude regions?
They evaporate into the atmosphere and condense in cooler regions
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What happens to pollutants incorporated into snow that falls onto glaciers?
They become part of the glacier itself
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Why are legacy pollutants a significant environmental problem associated with climate change?
They are released back into the environment when glaciers melt
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True or False: Legacy pollutants are actively used chemicals.
False
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Fill in the blank: The release of legacy pollutants is a significant but less-discussed _______ problem associated with climate change in mountain regions.
environmental
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What are legacy pollutants?
Chemicals that have been deposited in the environment and can remain for decades.
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Where was an ice core taken that provides a historical record of chemical deposition?
Snow Dome Peak on the Columbia Icefield in the Canadian Rockies.
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What effect does warming have on legacy pollutants in ice?
It releases these chemicals back into the environment.
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Which pollutants were identified in microorganisms and fish at Bow Lake?
* DDT
* PCBs
* Toxaphene
* Other organochlorines
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What region is experiencing remobilization of legacy pollutants due to melting glaciers?
Asia, specifically northern India.
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What significant pollutants are contributed to surface waters by melting Himalayan glaciers?
* Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
* High molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
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During which season have pollutants been observed in the Ganges River Plain?
Dry season.
250
How does climate change affect exposure levels to legacy pollutants?
Increases exposure levels across impacted regions.
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True or False: Legacy pollutants from melting glaciers only affect aquatic ecosystems.
False.
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Fill in the blank: Research at Bow Lake has demonstrated the impact of pollutants on the _______.
[ecosystem]
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What are the environmental and health risks associated with the remobilization of legacy pollutants?
Exacerbated environmental and health risks.
254
Which mountain water sources are generally limited to the warmer seasons?
Glacial melt and rain
255
What is a glacier?
A mass of relatively slow moving ice, created by the long term accumulation of snow
256
How much of the worlds total land area do glaciers occupy?
10%
257
When did the last ice-age end?
11700 years ago
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During the ice-age, how much of the planet was covered by glaciers?
Over 30%
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How far can glacial ice can be traced back?
Over 2 million years
260
Describe how snow transforms into glacial ice
Snow that survives the summer, is compacted by new snow. This compaction causes the expulsion of air bubbles within the layers - the snow becomes more dense. After about 2 winters, residual snow turns into Firn. As the Firn density increases from 400-600/700 kg per cubic meter, the snow pack seals off and any trapped air forms bubbles. Then the Firn becomes glacial ice at 850 kg per cubic meter.
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What is the density of freshly fallen snow?
90% air and 10% snow or 50-200kg per cubic meter (water is 1000kg per cubic meter).
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What is Firn?
The intermediate state between snow and glacier ice
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At what density does Firn develop?
400kg per cubic meter
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At what density does Firn become glacial ice?
850 kg per cubic meter
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How can you tell the difference between Firn and glacial ice?
Density: (850kg/cubic meter)
Observation: Firn, typically looks white and has visible air bubbles. Glacial ice looks solid, smooth and blue.
266
What causes snow crystals to change from snow into ice?
The process of Sintering: Melting occurs at the points of high pressure between snow crystals (where they connect/touch after falling). Then melt-water flows into the spaces between the crystals (where the pressure is lower and the freezing point is higher). Here, water refreezes, binding snow crystals together and enlarging the individual grains.
267
What are ‘dry snow zones’?
Places where melting rarely occurs, if ever.
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How can snow turn into glacial ice in dry snow zones?
This shift is due to the mechanical breakdown of snow crystals (by the wind), that forms them into smaller, rounder grains. These grains pack together much more efficiently. This leads to the tighter packing of crystals and sintering.
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What factors impact how long it takes for snow to be formed into glacial ice?
1 - Climate
2 - Air temperature
3 - precipitation
270
Where are the Baffin Mountains?
Canadas Eastern Arctic
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How long does it take for glacial ice to form in the Baffin mountains? Why?
hundreds to thousands of years ago - because there is very little melting and precipitation
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How long does it take for glacial ice to form in the Canadian coast mountains? Why?
3-4 years - heavy precipitation and melting in the summer
273
What is the term for the largest glaciers on the planet?
Ice sheets
274
In what two places on the planet can ice sheets be found?
Antarctica and Greenland
275
How big are ice sheets?
More than 50 000 square kilometres
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How do the flow of ice sheets differ from the flow of other glaciers?
Because ice sheets are so large, their flow is completely independent of the topography beneath.
277
What chain of mountains separate the East and West Antarctic Ice Sheets?
The Transantarctic mountains
278
How high are the Trans-Antarctic mountains?
5400 meters above sea level
279
What are ice caps? How big are they?
Miniature ice sheets, less than 50 000 square kilometres
280
Where do ice caps primarily form?
In the polar and sub polar regions, and are usually high in elevation.
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Are ice caps constrained by topographical features?
No
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Where is the dome of the ice cap typically located?
Cantered on the highest part of the mountain range
283
Describe the flow of an ice cap. What is this called?
Ice flows from the dome (highest point) to the periphery. This is called the Ice Divide
284
What do all mountain glaciers share in common?
They are confined by the topography of the landscape in which they reside.
285
What is the largest type of mountain glacier?
An Ice Field
286
Where is the Columbia ice field located?
The southern part of Jasper National Park
287
Ice that flows down valleys, originating from an ice field (sand often looking like a giant tongue) are called…?
Valley glaciers or outlet glaciers
288
How long is the Fredchenko Glacier? Where is it located?
77 kilometres. Located in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan
289
What is the longest glacier in the world - outside of the polar regions?
The Fredchenko glacier
290
Where is the Hydrological Apex of the North American continent?
The columbia mountains
291
How do Piedmont Glaciers occur?
When steep, valley glaciers flow onto a flat plane and fan out
292
Where is the Malaspina Glacier located? What kind of glacier is it?
South-eastern Alaska in the St. Elias mountains; this is a Piedmont Glacier
293
294
What are tidewater glaciers?
Valley glaciers that flow far enough to reach out into the sea.
295
Where is the Columbia glacier? What type of glacier is it?
The Chugach Mountains. This is a tidewater glacier
296
How are hanging glaciers formed?
a valley glaciers retreats and thins leaving tributaries and smaller glaciers high above the central glaciers surface
297
A glacier that is contained in a bowl-like hollow or basin is called a … ?
Cirque Glacier - found high on mountain sides and tend to be wider rather than longer
298
What does the survival of a cirque glacier depend upon?
Snow deposits from avalanches from the surrounding rock walls, and also shade from the sun.
299
Glaciers only grow when the amount of snow that falls is more than the amount that is melted away. What three factors reduce the size of glaciers?
Surface melting
Evaporation
Glacier Calving
300
What is the term for the material added to a glacier?
Annual input
301
What is the term for the material removed from a glacier?
The annual output
302
What is the difference between the annual input and annual output of a glacier?
The mass balance
303
When the mass balance over the course of a year equals out, it’s called…?
Steady state
304
What are the two main zones on a glacier?
The accumulation zone and the ablation zone
305
Where is the accumulation zone of a glacier?
Near the top, where elevations are high and snow precipitation is high.
306
In what zone of a glacier does evaporation and melting exceed inputs?
Ablation Zone - near the bottom
307
What is the annual mass balance in the accumulation zone of a glacier?
Positive
308
What is the annual mass balance of the ablation zone of a glacier?
Negative
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What is the ELA of a glacier?
The Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) of a glacier where the mass balance is in steady state with the annual mass balance equalling zero. This line is in between the accumulation zone and the ablation zone.
310
Where is the ELA on a glacier if it is favouring glacial advance?
Relatively low
311
Where is the ELA on a glacier where condition favour glacial retreat?
Relatively high
312
What is the terminus of a glacier?
The end point
313
Who first noticed that glaciers flow?
The Icelander Sveinn Palssen in 1794
314
What are the bow-shaped bands on a glacier called? What are they evidence of?
Ogives - evidence of glacial flow
315
how does the shape of a glacier change in a climate that’s cool, or when snow fall is increasing?
The ELA lowers and the accumulation one grows and the ablation zone shrinks, flow increases and the terminus of the glacier advances
316
How does the shape of a glacier change in a warming climate?
Melt increases and the ELA rises, increasing the ablation zone and decreasing the accumulation zone, the glacier adopts a negative mass balance and the terminus retreats.
317
Does glacial ice still flow when it’s in retreat?
Yes
318
What is basal sliding of a glacier?
The slippage of ice on mass over the rock surface at its base.
319
What are the controls of basal sliding?
1 - temperature of ice at the base
2 - presence of water to serve as lubricant
320
How does bed deformation occur during glacier flow?
Water makes soft ground atop bedrock softer and is pushed downslope by the ice.
321
What factors drive glacial flow rates?
Gravity
Slope angle
Ice thickness
322
Why were glaciers seen as an enduring plague
Perhaps from Johann Scheuchzers (Swiss scholar) travel log, published in 1708, from when he travelled to the European Alps. It spoke of dragons and other monsters.
323
When and how were popular perceptions of glaciers in Europe changed for the better?
During the 1800’s scientific discoveries revealed that an ice-age had happened at least once in the history of the earth and suggested that it actually might happen again. This finding affected almost every scientific discipline.
324
What was the first mountain guiding association?
In 1821 - Compagnie des Guides de Chamonix was formed to regulate the access to the slopes on Mont Blanc - making Chamonix an alpine tourism destination.
325
When/what was the little Ice Age?
A time when the majority of the world’s glaciers were actually advancing - from 1500-1850’s.
326
When did the little ice age end?
At the height of the Industrial Revolution
327
What two features are formed as a result of glacier movement?
Carcasses and merrains
328
What are crevasses?
Deep cracks or fractures found in the glacier
329
Why do crevasses form? What makes them occur most often?
Tensional stress from ice flow. When the middle and the sides of the glacier flow at different rates, slope steepens or when ice curves around a bend.
330
What is the typical orientation of crevasses?
Transverse or horizontal to the direction of flow
331
How do crevasses effect the rate of ablation?
They increase the rate of ablation by increase if the glaciers surface area, allowing for the pooling of meltwater, and by dislodging the ice near the terminus.
332
What is a Moraine?
The linear accumulations of rocky debris, oriented in the direction of the flow of a glacier.
333
Where is the Kaskawulsh Glacier?
In Kluane national park - in the Saint Elias Mountains, Yukon.
334
What are lateral moraines and how are they formed?
Debris that is carried along the edges of the glacier.
335
What and how is a medial moraine formed?
When lateral moraines become vertical partitions between two glaciers when they flow beside each other.
336
How does the presence of moraines alter the mass balance of a glacier?
The rock material absorbs more of the lights energy, but can also be an insulator (if it’s thick enough) to help cover the underlying ice.
337
What is a glaciated valley?
A trough-shaped valley with steep, near-vertical cliffs where mountain sides were scoured by glacial movement.
338
What types of landscape is seen Yosemite National Park (Sierra Nevada)
Glaciated valleys - steep sloped on either side of
339
What is an Arete?
Narrow, jagged ridges where the back of two glaciers meet, eroding the ridge on both sides.
340
How are ‘horns’ created (land feature)?
When several cirque glaciers surrounding a mountain, erode a mountain until all that’s left is a sharp, pointed peak, with sharp ridge-like arets leading all the way to the top.
341
What is headward erosion?
The erosion of the upper origin of a glacier (cutting backwards).
342
How is a saddle, notch, Arete and pyramidal peak formed in a glacier?
When cirque glaciers develop on opposite sides of a ridge, they erode headward, meeting in the middle to create a saddle or notch. Eventually, it creates an arete with a sharp jagged ridge and can also create pyramidal peaks.
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