CLASS 104 Post Midterm Flashcards
(58 cards)
Define a Quest Hero.
Quest Hero’s are known for their adventure rather than a remarkable birth or death. They are always in motion/pursuit, and they always meet both helpers and hinderers along the way.
What are examples of 4 quest heroes?
1 - Jason
2 - Perseus
3 - Bellerophon
4 - Odysseus
What are some common themes surrounding the villains/hinderers of quest heroes?
(Provide examples)
- Often not fully human
Eg. Scylla (part human, snake, dog)
Eg. Medusa (snakes for hair) - the quest hero meets these villains outside of society (caves, ocean, mountains)
- The villain acts in socially unacceptable ways
-Often not ethnically Greek
These aspects serve to provide contrast to the story by portraying the hero as the ideal of society against the villains who are menaces to society.
What are common common themes among quest heroes? Please use specific examples to emphasize your claims.
- They are always on a journey (known for their adventure)
Eg. Odysseus 10 year sail home - They always meet helpers and hinderers
Eg. Jason and Medea, Ariadne and Theseus - They continually encounter hosts who do not present Xenia.
Eg. Polyphemus (Cyclopes) eats odysseus’ men instead of offering them food and drink.
What is the difference between vertical and horizontal traditions?
Horizontal traditions explain the life of a god/hero/man from birth to death (chronologically).
Vertical traditions refer moreso to specific moments in an entities life.
Describe in detail, the story of Bellerophon.
The Origins of Bellerophon
Bellerophon was a hero of Greek mythology, renowned for his courage and divine favor. He was the son of Glaucus, King of Corinth, and Eurynome (or Eurymede), though some versions of the myth claim that his true father was Poseidon, god of the sea. Bellerophon’s early life was marked by tragedy when he accidentally killed either a nobleman or his own brother. As punishment for this crime, he was exiled from Corinth and traveled to the court of King Proteus in Tiryns (or Argos) to seek purification.
Stheneboea’s False Accusation
While staying at King Proteus’s court, Bellerophon caught the attention of Proteus’s wife, Stheneboea (sometimes called Anteia). She fell in love with him and attempted to seduce him. However, Bellerophon rejected her advances, remaining honorable and loyal to his host. Humiliated by his rejection, Stheneboea falsely accused Bellerophon of attempting to assault her. Outraged by this accusation but unwilling to kill a guest due to the sacred laws of hospitality, Proteus devised another plan.
Proteus Sends Bellerophon to King Iobates
Proteus sent Bellerophon to Lycia with a sealed letter addressed to Stheneboea’s father, King Iobates. The letter contained instructions for Iobates to kill Bellerophon. When Bellerophon arrived in Lycia, he was received warmly as a guest by Iobates, who read the letter only after hosting him for several days. Like Proteus, Iobates hesitated to kill Bellerophon directly because harming a guest would anger the gods. Instead, he decided to send Bellerophon on what he believed would be a suicide mission.
The Task: Slaying the Chimera
Iobates ordered Bellerophon to slay the Chimera, a fearsome monster terrorizing Lycia. The Chimera was a hybrid creature with the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a serpent. It breathed fire and was considered invincible.
Before facing this deadly foe, Bellerophon sought guidance from the gods. Athena appeared to him in a dream and gifted him a golden bridle that would allow him to tame Pegasus, the winged horse born from Medusa’s blood. Following Athena’s instructions, Bellerophon found Pegasus drinking at the spring Peirene and used the bridle to tame him.
Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon attacked the Chimera from above, staying out of reach of its fiery breath. Using his spear tipped with lead, he thrust it into the Chimera’s throat. The lead melted from the creature’s fiery breath and suffocated it, killing it.
Further Challenges: The Solymi and Amazons
When Bellerophon returned victorious, Iobates was astonished but still unwilling to let him live. He sent Bellerophon on additional dangerous missions. First, he ordered him to fight the Solymi tribe (a fierce group in Lycia), which Bellerophon defeated with Pegasus’s help. Next, Iobates sent him against the Amazons, warrior women known for their strength and skill in battle. Once again, Bellerophon triumphed.
In desperation, Iobates even tried to ambush Bellerophon with his own army. However, Pegasus gave Bellerophon an advantage in battle, allowing him to defeat Iobates’s forces single-handedly.
Recognition and Reward
By now, Iobates realized that Bellerophon must have been favored by the gods—perhaps even descended from them—and that no mortal could defeat him. To make amends for his earlier treachery, Iobates gave Bellerophon his daughter Philonoe (or Cassandra) in marriage and made him heir to his kingdom.
Bellerophon’s Hubris and Downfall
For a time, Bellerophon lived happily as a king alongside Philonoe. However, his pride began to grow after his many victories and divine favor. Believing himself worthy of joining the gods on Mount Olympus, he attempted to ride Pegasus up to their celestial home.
Zeus saw this act as hubris—excessive pride or arrogance—and sent a gadfly to sting Pegasus mid-flight. Startled by the sting, Pegasus threw Bellerophon off its back. The hero plummeted back down to Earth and was severely injured in the fall.
Bellerophon survived but was left crippled and shunned by both mortals and gods for his arrogance. He spent the rest of his life wandering alone in misery until his death.
Describe the quest of Jason in detail.
Origins and Early Life
Jason was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcus, and Alcimede. His grandfather was Cretheus, the founder of Iolcus, and his grandmother Tyro, who had children with Poseidon but not Aeson. Unlike many Greek heroes, Jason had no divine parentage but was favored by Hera, queen of the gods.
When Pelias, Aeson’s half-brother, usurped the throne of Iolcus, Jason’s life was in danger. To protect him, his parents sent him to Mount Pelion to be raised by Chiron, the wise centaur. Under Chiron’s tutelage, Jason grew into a skilled and noble young man.
The Prophecy and Pelias’ Challenge
Pelias received a prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi warning him to “beware a man wearing one sandal.” Years later, Jason returned to Iolcus to claim his rightful throne. On his journey back, he helped an old woman (Hera in disguise) cross a river, losing one sandal in the process.
When Pelias saw Jason with one sandal, he recognized him as the man from the prophecy. To rid himself of this threat without outright killing him (which would anger the gods), Pelias sent Jason on an impossible quest: retrieving the Golden Fleece from Colchis.
The Quest for the Golden Fleece
Jason gathered a crew of heroes known as the Argonauts. Among them were famous figures like Heracles, Orpheus, and Castor and Pollux. They set sail aboard the Argo, a ship crafted by Argus using wood from a prophetic oak tree that could speak.
Challenges Along the Way
1. Lemnos: The Argonauts stopped at Lemnos, an island inhabited only by women who had killed their husbands. Their queen, Hypsipyle, welcomed Jason and his crew. Jason fathered children with her before continuing on his journey.
2. Mysia: In Mysia, they befriended King Cyzicus of the Doliones. However, after their friendly departure, their boat was blown back to shore in the night causing, Jason accidentally killed Cyzicus (because he didn’t recognize him). The crew mourned their tragic error before moving on.
3. Thrace - Phineus and the Harpies: In Thrace, they encountered Phineus, a blind prophet tormented by Harpies that stole his food. The Argonauts drove away the Harpies with help from Zetes and Calais (winged sons of Boreas). In gratitude, Phineus revealed how to navigate their next major obstacle: the Symplegades.
4. Symplegades (Clashing Rocks): These massive rocks smashed together whenever something tried to pass between them. Following Phineus’ advice, Jason released a dove to test safe passage. When the dove made it through with only its tail feathers clipped, Jason guided the Argo through at full speed with Athena’s assistance.
Colchis and Aeëtes’ Tasks
When Jason reached Colchis, King Aeëtes agreed to give him the Golden Fleece—but only if he completed three impossible tasks:
1. Yoke Fire-Breathing Bulls: Aeëtes demanded that Jason plow a field using two enormous bulls with bronze hooves that breathed fire. Medea—Aeëtes’ daughter and a powerful sorceress—fell in love with Jason after Hera enlisted Eros to make her do so. She gave Jason an ointment that made him immune to fire and helped him yoke the bulls.
2. Sow Dragon Teeth: After plowing the field, Aeëtes ordered Jason to sow dragon teeth into it. From these teeth sprouted an army of warriors called Spartoi. Medea advised Jason to throw a rock among them; confused about its source, they fought each other until none remained.
3. Defeat the Sleepless Dragon: The final task was to retrieve the Golden Fleece itself from a dragon that never slept while guarding it. Medea used her magic to lull the dragon into sleep so that Jason could seize the fleece.
The Escape from Colchis
With Medea’s help—and her betrayal of her own father—Jason obtained the Golden Fleece and fled Colchis aboard the Argo. Their escape was fraught with further dangers:
1. Apsyrtus: Medea’s brother Apsyrtus pursued them on behalf of Aeëtes. According to some versions of the myth, Medea lured Apsyrtus into an ambush where Jason killed him; in others, she dismembered him and scattered his remains in the sea to delay their pursuers.
2. Circe: The murder of Apsyrtus angered Zeus. To atone for this crime, Jason and Medea sought purification from Circe on her island.
3. Sirens: As they sailed past these dangerous creatures whose songs lured sailors to their deaths, Orpheus played his lyre so beautifully that it drowned out their voices.
4. Scylla and Charybdis: The Argonauts navigated between Scylla (a six-headed monster) and Charybdis (a deadly whirlpool), narrowly escaping destruction.
5. Talos in Crete: On Crete, they encountered Talos—a giant bronze automaton who guarded the island by hurling boulders at approaching ships. Medea tricked Talos into removing a nail from his ankle that sealed his vein of ichor (divine blood), causing him to die.
The Return Journey
After many trials, Jason returned to Iolcus with Medea and the Golden Fleece in triumph—but their troubles were far from over:
• Pelias’ Death: Pelias refused to relinquish power even after Jason returned with the fleece. Medea tricked Pelias’ daughters into killing him by demonstrating a false rejuvenation spell involving boiling an old ram in a cauldron; when they tried this on their father, he died instead.
• Exile in Corinth: This act angered Pelias’ supporters and forced Jason and Medea into exile in Corinth.
Jason’s Tragic End
In Corinth, Jason betrayed Medea by abandoning her for Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of King Creon. Enraged by this betrayal:
• Medea killed Glauce with a poisoned robe.
• She also murdered her own children with Jason as an act of vengeance.
• She fled Corinth in a chariot pulled by dragons sent by her grandfather Helios.
Jason’s life ended tragically as well:
• He lost Hera’s favor due to his betrayal of Medea.
• He died alone when part of his ship—the Argo—collapsed on him while he sat beneath it in despair.
Odysseus is favoured by Athena and a descendent of Hermes. How do these ties to divinity displayed within his character? How does Odysseus’ character contrast with Achilles?
Odysseus is known for his cleverness and cunning intelligence (Metis). These traits are described further by his epithets in homer such as “polumetis” meaning very clever as well as “polutropus” meaning very tricky. Odysseus is restrained, practical, eloquent, and intelligent.
- Like Hermes, he is a trickster, shapeshifter and master of disguise.
- Like Athena, he is a master of many crafts and talents
Examples:
1 - he feigns madness by plowing his fields with salt to avoid joining the Trojan War. Palamedes exposes him by placing his infant son, Telemachus, in front of the plow, forcing Odysseus to reveal his sanity to save the child
2 - To recruit Achilles for the Trojan War, Odysseus cleverly discovers him disguised as a woman on Scyros. He presents weapons among gifts, prompting Achilles to reveal himself by instinctively reaching for them.
3 - Odysseus masterminds the Trojan Horse strategy, where Greek soldiers hide inside a giant wooden horse presented as a gift to Troy.
4 - When navigating the sirens, Odysseus devises a method to hear the Sirens’ song safely by tying himself to the mast while his crew plugs their ears.
Achilles on the other hand, embodies brute strength and courage but is marked by pride and impulsive anger. His wrath drives much of the conflict in the Iliad, leading to both triumphs and tragedies.
He relies on physical dominance and direct confrontation. His heroism is tied to battlefield glory and sacrifice, choosing a short but glorious life over obscurity.
Driven by kleos (glory), Achilles seeks eternal fame through his prowess in battle. His actions, such as avenging Patroclus and slaying Hector, are fueled by personal honor and recognition
How is Odysseus presented in Tragedy?
Odysseus is portrayed in Greek tragedy as a cunning and morally complex figure.
Examples:
Sophocles’’ Ajax:
After Achilles’ death, his divine armor, forged by Hephaestus, becomes the prize for the bravest Greek warrior. Both Ajax and Odysseus are candidates, as they had heroically defended Achilles’ body from the Trojans. Ajax, a towering and formidable warrior, believes he deserves the armor due to his strength and battlefield achievements, including saving Greek ships from Hector and defeating numerous Trojans. Odysseus, however, argues his case with eloquence and intelligence before a council of Greek leaders, which includes Agamemnon and Menelaus.
With Athena’s support, Odysseus wins the contest by persuading the judges that his cunning and contributions to the war effort make him more deserving. This decision humiliates Ajax, who feels deeply dishonored. Enraged, he plans to kill Odysseus and the Greek leaders but is struck by madness through Athena’s intervention. In his delusion, Ajax slaughters livestock, mistaking them for his enemies.
When he regains his senses and realizes what he has done, Ajax is overcome with shame and despair. To preserve what remains of his honor, he takes his own life by falling on his sword. His death marks a tragic end to a hero who epitomized traditional warrior values but was undone by the rise of cunning and rhetoric embodied by Odysseus
Sophocles’ Philoctetes:
Philoctetes, abandoned on the island of Lemnos due to a festering wound caused by a snake bite, possesses Heracles’ bow and arrows—crucial weapons for winning the Trojan War. Odysseus leads an expedition to retrieve these weapons but knows Philoctetes harbors deep resentment toward the Greeks for leaving him behind.
Odysseus devises a plan involving Neoptolemus, Achilles’ son. He instructs Neoptolemus to deceive Philoctetes by pretending to sympathize with him and promising to take him home. Neoptolemus reluctantly agrees but struggles with guilt as he bonds with Philoctetes during their interactions.
Eventually, Neoptolemus reveals the truth about the plan and returns the bow to Philoctetes. Heracles appears as a deus ex machina and convinces Philoctetes to join the Greeks in fighting at Troy. While Odysseus’s cunning ensures the success of the mission, his manipulative tactics highlight his pragmatic but morally ambiguous nature.
Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis
In this play, Odysseus plays a pivotal role in convincing Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to appease Artemis and secure favorable winds for the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. Initially hesitant, Agamemnon wavers between his duty as commander and his love for his daughter.
Odysseus uses cold logic and political manipulation to pressure Agamemnon into proceeding with the sacrifice. He argues that without Iphigenia’s death, the entire Greek expedition will fail before it begins, jeopardizing their honor and their chances of defeating Troy.
Odysseus also deceives Clytemnestra by luring Iphigenia to Aulis under the pretense that she will marry Achilles. This act of manipulation underscores Odysseus’s willingness to prioritize collective goals over personal morality. Ultimately, Iphigenia accepts her fate heroically, but Odysseus’s role in orchestrating her death portrays him as a ruthless politician.
Describe the different types of Heroines in Roman and Greek mythology. What defines these types? Provide examples of each.
Types of Heroines in Greek and Roman Mythology
Greek and Roman mythology presents heroines in diverse roles that reflect societal expectations, gender norms, and the complexities of female heroism. These heroines can be categorized into distinct types based on their characteristics, actions, and societal roles:
1. Quest Heroines • These heroines participate in adventures or quests, often breaking traditional gender roles. • Opportunities for women to embark on such journeys were rare due to societal restrictions on their movement and autonomy. • Quest heroines often possess physical prowess, courage, and independence. 2. Heroines in Traditional Roles • Heroines in these roles reflect societal expectations of women as wives, mothers, helpers, or villains. • They are often idealized as loyal, submissive, and obedient figures who prioritize family and duty over personal desires. 3. Hero “Impersonators” • These heroines step outside traditional gender norms by adopting masculine traits or roles. • They are often viewed as dangerous or subversive figures who challenge societal expectations, leading to punishment such as exile or death. 4. The Brides of Death • Heroines associated with sacrifice or martyrdom, often meeting tragic ends for the greater good. • Their deaths are symbolic acts that serve a larger purpose, such as securing peace or fulfilling divine will. 5. Victorious Heroines • These heroines retain independence while being supported by male figures in their lives. • They often achieve success through intelligence, perseverance, and loyalty within the boundaries of societal norms. 6. Tragic Heroines (The New Heroine) • These heroines act publicly to address moral, social, or religious wrongs. • Frequently appearing in Classical tragedies, they challenge the status quo with courage and fortitude but often face tragic consequences.
Detailed Examples for Each Type
1. Quest Heroines
• Atalanta: Atalanta is one of the few quest heroines in Greek mythology who defies societal expectations of women. Abandoned at birth by her father because he wanted a son, she was raised by a bear and grew into a skilled huntress with exceptional physical abilities. Atalanta participated in the Calydonian Boar Hunt alongside male heroes like Meleager. She was the first to wound the boar, earning praise for her bravery and skill. Later, she challenged suitors to footraces, agreeing to marry only the man who could outrun her. Hippomenes won by using golden apples given to him by Aphrodite to distract her during the race. Atalanta’s story highlights her independence but also her eventual subjugation within societal norms through marriage.
- Heroines in Traditional Roles
• Alcestis: Alcestis exemplifies loyalty and self-sacrifice as the ideal wife in Greek mythology. When her husband Admetus was fated to die after offending Artemis, Alcestis volunteered to die in his place so he could live. Her willingness to sacrifice herself demonstrates devotion and obedience to her husband’s well-being. However, Alcestis is later saved from death by Heracles, who wrestles Death itself to bring her back.
• Helen of Troy: Helen is both an idealized figure for her beauty and a controversial one for her role in sparking the Trojan War. Abducted (or seduced) by Paris of Troy while married to Menelaus of Sparta, Helen’s actions are seen as both passive (a victim) and active (aware of her power). Her beauty becomes a source of conflict that leads to immense suffering.
• Medea: Medea is a complex figure who initially plays the role of helper by aiding Jason in his quest for the Golden Fleece through her sorcery and cunning. However, when Jason betrays her by marrying another woman, Medea transitions into the villain archetype by killing their children as revenge against him. - Hero “Impersonators”
• Atalanta: As a huntress who competed with men in hunting and athletic contests, Atalanta stepped outside traditional female roles entirely. She demonstrated traits typically reserved for male heroes—strength, independence, and competitiveness.
• Such heroines were often punished for their independence; for example, Atalanta’s story ends with her being subdued into marriage by trickery rather than choice. - The Brides of Death
• Cassandra: Cassandra was a priestess of Apollo cursed to foresee the future but never be believed because she rejected Apollo’s advances. After Troy’s fall, she was taken as a concubine by Agamemnon but met a tragic end when Clytemnestra murdered her alongside Agamemnon out of jealousy and revenge.
• Iphigenia: Iphigenia was sacrificed by her father Agamemnon to appease Artemis after he offended the goddess by killing one of her sacred deer. In some versions of the myth (such as Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis), Artemis saves Iphigenia at the last moment and replaces her with a deer on the altar. - Victorious Heroines
• Penelope: Penelope is celebrated as an ideal wife who demonstrates intelligence and loyalty during Odysseus’s 20-year absence after the Trojan War. To fend off suitors pressuring her to remarry, Penelope weaves a burial shroud for Odysseus’s father during the day but secretly unravels it at night—a clever ploy that delays remarriage until Odysseus returns home.
• Penelope’s ability to maintain independence while remaining within societal boundaries makes her an exemplary victorious heroine. - Tragic Heroines (The New Heroine)
• Medea (Euripides): Medea kills her brother during Jason’s escape with the Golden Fleece and later murders their children after Jason abandons her for another woman. While Medea’s actions are extreme, they are motivated by betrayal and societal injustice—she acts not out of personal gain but as vengeance against those who wronged her.
• Antigone (Sophocles): Antigone defies King Creon’s edict forbidding the burial of her brother Polynices because she believes it is morally imperative to honor him according to divine law rather than human law. Faced with execution for disobedience, Antigone chooses suicide over submission.
• Polyxena (Euripides’ Hecuba): Polyxena willingly sacrifices herself on Achilles’ tomb after being captured during Troy’s fall. She insists on dying with dignity rather than being treated as a slave—a stark contrast to other characters who resist their fate.
What is the story of Iphigenia?
Describe Euripides Iphigenia in Aulis (405 BCE), Euripides Iphigenia among the Taurians, as well as Aeschylus’ Oresteia (458 BCE).
Where and with who was Iphigenia worshipped?
Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, is one of the most tragic and heroic figures in Greek mythology. Her story begins in Euripides’ Iphigenia in Aulis (405 BCE), set during the Greek army’s preparations to sail to Troy. The fleet is stranded at Aulis because Artemis, angered by Agamemnon for killing her sacred deer and boasting about his superiority to the goddess, sends unfavorable winds to prevent their departure. The seer Calchas reveals that the only way to appease Artemis is for Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigenia. Torn between his duty as a leader and his love for his daughter, Agamemnon reluctantly agrees and deceives Iphigenia and her mother, Clytemnestra, by claiming that Iphigenia is to marry the hero Achilles. When the truth is revealed, Iphigenia displays remarkable courage and chooses to die willingly, declaring that her sacrifice will save Greece and allow the fleet to sail. This act of selflessness highlights themes of duty, honor, and personal sacrifice for the greater good. However, in some versions of the myth, Artemis spares Iphigenia at the last moment by replacing her with a deer on the altar and whisking her away to Tauris (modern-day Crimea) to serve as her priestess. The ambiguity of Iphigenia’s fate reflects the tension between human suffering and divine intervention.
Years later, Euripides revisits Iphigenia’s story in Iphigenia among the Taurians (414 BCE)(King Thaos), where she has been living as a priestess of Artemis in Tauris. Her role involves preparing Greek captives for sacrifice to Artemis, a duty that weighs heavily on her conscience. Despite her isolation and longing for home, Iphigenia remains devoted to her divine responsibilities. One day, two captives arrive—her brother Orestes and his companion Pylades—though neither sibling initially recognizes the other. Orestes has come to Tauris on a mission from Apollo to retrieve a sacred statue of Artemis as part of his quest for redemption after killing their mother, Clytemnestra. When Iphigenia and Orestes finally recognize each other in an emotional reunion, they plot their escape together. With cleverness and courage, Iphigenia devises a plan to smuggle Orestes, Pylades, and the statue out of Tauris under the guise of performing a purification ritual. Their successful escape not only restores familial bonds but also redeems Orestes from his torment by the Erinyes (Furies). This tale emphasizes themes of loyalty, familial love, redemption, and resourcefulness.
Iphigenia’s story also plays a significant role in Aeschylus’ Oresteia (458 BCE), though she does not appear directly. Her sacrifice at Aulis becomes the catalyst for Clytemnestra’s hatred toward Agamemnon. Upon his return from Troy, Clytemnestra murders him as revenge for sacrificing their daughter. This act sets off a cycle of vengeance within their family: Orestes avenges his father by killing Clytemnestra but is then pursued by the Erinyes for matricide. In this context, Iphigenia’s death represents not only personal tragedy but also the destructive consequences of prioritizing duty over family.
Beyond literature, Iphigenia is also associated with Artemis’ sanctuary at Brauron in Attica. In this sanctuary, young girls participated in rituals honoring both Artemis and Iphigenia as symbols of purity and transition into adulthood. These rituals reflected themes central to Iphigenia’s myth: sacrifice, service to the divine, and transformation from innocence to maturity.
Euripides’ Iphigenia in Aulis was written during a time of despair for Athens following military failures such as the Sicilian Expedition (415 BCE). The play’s exploration of leadership failure and sacrifice resonates with contemporary anxieties about war and its costs. Meanwhile, Iphigenia among the Taurians shifts focus from tragedy to redemption, portraying Iphigenia not as a passive victim but as an active agent who uses intelligence and bravery to reunite with her family.
In all versions of her story, Iphigenia embodies themes of duty, loyalty, sacrifice, and courage. Whether she is willingly offering herself at Aulis or plotting an escape from Tauris with Orestes, she acts heroically on behalf of her principles and loved ones. Her legacy endures not only through literature but also through rituals at Brauron that celebrate her connection to Artemis and her symbolic role as both a victim of circumstance and a figure of resilience
What is meant by the “New Heroine” ?
Please provide detailed examples of New Heroines.
The New Heroine was one that acted in public to benefit others, or to address a social, religious or moral wrong.
They frequently appeared in tragedies of the classical period, which were highly based off of the morality of their actions which redefine what it means to be a hero/heroine.
Examples:
- Medea can be defined as a New Heroine. Though she kills her own brother as well as her two sons, she does so motivated by equally unjustified wrongdoings that have happened to her. The murder of her sons could be thought of, not only as a way to punish Jason, but also a way to spare her sons the fate of being ethnic outcasts and orphans.
-Antigone (from Sophocles’ Antigone) can be defines as a New Heroine. Antigone insists on giving her brother, Polynices, a proper burial in order to secure him a worthy afterlife. However, she is forbidden to do this by the order of Kind Creon. Despite being faced with death as a result of her transgression Antigone still gives her brother a proper burial and then proceeds to end her own life. Her actions display exceptional moral commitment.
- Polyxena (from Euripides Hecuba) is another example. Polyxena, daughter of Hecuba and King Priam, was to be sacrificed on the tomb of Achilles. Surprisingly, Polyxena goes willingly to her death. Her actions display how she confronts and defies male power to pursue actions that she belives are moral.
Who was Orpheus? Describe in detail, the story of Orpheus.
In what ways was Orpheus’ heroism unique?
The Stories of Orpheus
Orpheus, one of the most celebrated figures in Greek mythology, was renowned for his extraordinary musical abilities and the profound emotional power of his songs. He was said to be the son of Oeagrus, a Thracian king, or Apollo, the god of music, and Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry. His lineage combined the rational and harmonious qualities of Apollo with the ecstatic and emotional elements associated with Dionysus, making him an archetypal creative artist whose music captivated the entire world—humans, animals, and even inanimate objects like stones and trees.
Orpheus and Eurydice
The most famous story involving Orpheus is his tragic love for Eurydice, as recounted by Virgil in Georgics (late 1st century BCE) and Apollodorus in Library (2nd century CE). Orpheus married Eurydice, a beautiful nymph, but their happiness was short-lived. In one version of the myth, Eurydice was pursued by the shepherd Aristaeus and, while fleeing, stepped on a snake that fatally bit her. In another version, she was simply dancing with other nymphs when she was bitten. Overcome with grief at her death, Orpheus sang mournful songs that moved gods and mortals alike.
Determined to retrieve Eurydice from the underworld, Orpheus embarked on a perilous journey to Hades. Armed only with his lyre and his enchanting voice, he charmed Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the underworld, and even softened the hearts of Hades and Persephone with his music. They agreed to let Eurydice return to life on one condition: Orpheus must not look back at her until they had both exited the underworld. This condition tested Orpheus’s patience and faith. As they neared the surface, he became anxious when he could not hear her footsteps behind him. Just before reaching the exit, he turned to look at her—and in that instant, Eurydice vanished back into Hades forever. This moment symbolizes both human frailty and the devastating consequences of doubt.
Plato’s Symposium offers a more critical view of this myth. It suggests that Orpheus’s love was not “true” because he sought to bring Eurydice back alive rather than joining her in death. As punishment for his lack of ultimate sacrifice, he was only granted an apparition of Eurydice in Hades.
Orpheus’s Unique Heroism
Orpheus’s descent into the underworld is unique because it inverts traditional heroic quests. Unlike warriors such as Heracles or Theseus who venture into Hades seeking glory or conquest, Orpheus’s journey is motivated by love and a desire to restore domestic harmony by retrieving his wife. This aligns him more closely with figures like Demeter, who descended into Hades to recover her daughter Persephone. The myth also intertwines themes of Eros (love) and Thanatos (death), as Orpheus’s love for Eurydice drives him to confront mortality itself.
Orpheus’s story echoes mythic traditions where goddesses like Ishtar or Isis descend into death to retrieve their consorts (e.g., Tammuz or Osiris). However, in this case, it is a male figure who takes on this traditionally feminine role—a reversal that highlights Orpheus’s emotional depth and vulnerability.
Orpheus’s Violent Death
After losing Eurydice forever, Orpheus rejected all other romantic relationships and devoted himself entirely to music. According to some versions of the myth (e.g., Virgil’s Georgics), he shunned women out of loyalty to Eurydice or turned his devotion toward Helios (the sun), angering Dionysus. This led to his violent death at the hands of Thracian Maenads—female followers of Dionysus—who tore him apart in a frenzy (a ritualistic act known as sparagmos). The Maenads were said to be enraged either by Orpheus’s rejection of women or by his neglect of Dionysian worship.
Even in death, Orpheus’s head continued to sing as it floated downriver before washing ashore on Lesbos. Apollo preserved it as an oracle, while Zeus placed his lyre among the stars as the constellation Lyra. This deification underscores Orpheus’s dual legacy: punished by Dionysian forces but immortalized through Apollonian harmony.
Describe Orpheus’ relation to cult worship. Describe the Orphic teachings.
Orpheus’ relationship with Dionysus and his role in cult worship are deeply rooted in mythology, theology, and ritual practices. The myth of Orpheus descending into the Underworld to retrieve Eurydice is central to his narrative. During this journey, Orpheus gained esoteric knowledge about death and the afterlife, which became foundational to Orphic teachings. These teachings emphasized spiritual purification and transcendence, offering initiates a path to salvation through secret rituals and insights into the mysteries of existence.
Orphic literature, though often falsely attributed to Orpheus himself, includes mythological texts that reinterpret traditional Greek cosmology and theology. These writings describe the origins of the world and the rebirth of Dionysus Zagreus, a key figure in Orphism. The myth of Dionysus’ dismemberment by Titans and subsequent rebirth symbolizes humanity’s dual nature: a divine soul inherited from Dionysus and a corrupt physical body formed from the ashes of Titans. This narrative underpins Orphic beliefs about purification, reincarnation, and spiritual renewal.
The cosmology described in Orphic texts also influenced later philosophers like Damascius (458–538 CE). According to these accounts, Cronos created a cosmic egg from which emerged a winged god—often identified as Phanes—who generated other gods. Zeus plays an essential role in this cosmological framework, restoring order after chaos and facilitating Dionysus’ rebirth. This mythological structure emphasizes the cyclical nature of creation, destruction, and renewal, aligning with Orphic teachings about the soul’s journey toward ultimate regeneration.
Orphism had a significant influence on Dionysian mystery cults by introducing structured rituals, secret knowledge, and promises of salvation after death. Initiates of Orpheus’ mystery cult were sometimes buried with gold tablets inscribed with formulas or instructions for navigating the Underworld. These practices reflect the belief that Orphic rituals could guide souls toward liberation from the cycle of reincarnation (metempsychosis) and contamination inherited from humanity’s Titan origins. The concept of spiritual cleansing through successive rebirths also influenced philosophers like Pythagoras in the 6th century BCE.
According to Orphic mythology, humans were formed from the ashes of Titans after Zeus destroyed them for consuming Dionysus Zagreus. This origin story imbued humanity with inherited guilt and contamination, necessitating spiritual purification through reincarnation. The Underworld was seen as a place of ultimate regeneration where souls could achieve spiritual renewal after undergoing trials and purification processes.
What is Orphic literature? Describe the two main myths that were embedded in Orphic teachings.
(Hint: Dionysus and Cosmos)
Describe Orphic cult worship.
Orphic literature is literature attributed to the mythical poet Orpheus, though they were not actually authored by him. Ancient traditions ascribed these works to Orpheus due to his association with music, poetry, and religious innovation, but modern scholars recognize that these texts were composed by various authors over centuries. Examples include the Orphic Hymns, Rhapsodic Theogony, and other theogonies like the Derveni Papyrus.
The Orphic Hymns, for instance, are ritualistic hymns composed in Asia Minor around the 2nd or 3rd centuries CE. They were falsely attributed to Orpheus and used in religious rites, focusing heavily on deities like Dionysus.
Rebirth of Dionysus
In Orphic mythology, Dionysus (often referred to as Zagreus) is the son of Zeus and Persephone. Zeus names him as his successor, which enrages Hera. She incites the Titans to kill the child, who is dismembered and consumed by them. Athena saves his heart and delivers it to Zeus, who either implants it in his thigh or uses it to impregnate Semele, resulting in Dionysus’ rebirth. This myth symbolizes divine renewal and the cyclical nature of life. Dionysus’ rebirth is central to Orphism’s focus on resurrection and spiritual purification.
Origin of Humans
The creation of humanity in Orphism stems from the punishment of the Titans for their crime against Dionysus. Zeus strikes them with a thunderbolt, reducing them to ashes. From these ashes, humans are born, inheriting a dual nature: their physical bodies come from the sinful Titans, while their souls are divine fragments of Dionysus. This duality underpins Orphic beliefs about spiritual contamination and the need for purification through reincarnation (metempsychosis).
Orphic poetry influenced the cult worship at Dionysus’ mystery cults. They promised initiates of Orpheus’ mystery cult (Orphism) help after death. They had magic spells, passwords, ritual practices. The initiate was sometimes buries with golden leaves inscribed with formulae.
What was the story of Pandora and Prometheus?
Prometheus, a Titan and the son of Iapetos and Clymene (a daughter of Ocean), was known for his intelligence and foresight. He had three brothers: Atlas, Epimetheus, and Menoetius. During the great war between the Titans and Olympians (the Titanomachy), Atlas sided with the Titans against Zeus, while Prometheus chose to support Zeus, helping the Olympians secure victory. After the war, Atlas was punished by being forced to hold up the sky at the edge of the world, while Prometheus avoided imprisonment in Tartarus. However, his story would soon take a darker turn.
Prometheus became deeply involved in humanity’s creation. He shaped mankind from clay, and Athena breathed life into them. However, when Epimetheus distributed traits to animals—strength, speed, fur, claws—he left humans defenseless. To help humanity survive, Prometheus taught them arts such as metalworking, reading, and medicine. Most importantly, he sought to give them fire—a divine element necessary for civilization.
At the Feast of Mecone, where gods and mortals negotiated sacrifices, Prometheus tricked Zeus. He divided a sacrificial ox into two portions: one pile contained bones wrapped in glistening fat, while the other hid meat inside the animal’s hide. Prometheus invited Zeus to choose his portion first. Zeus chose the deceptive pile of bones wrapped in fat, realizing only afterward that he had been tricked. Furious at this insult, Zeus withheld fire from humans as punishment.
Prometheus defied Zeus by stealing fire from Olympus. He hid it inside a hollow fennel stalk and delivered it to humanity. With fire now in their possession, humans were able to cook food, forge tools, and build civilizations. This act of defiance enraged Zeus even further.
As punishment for Prometheus’ rebellion, Zeus ordered him to be chained to a rock in the Caucasus Mountains. There, a long-winged eagle was sent daily to gnaw on Prometheus’ liver—a cruel torment made worse by the fact that his liver regenerated every night. Prometheus endured this eternal suffering until Heracles eventually freed him by killing the eagle with Zeus’ permission.
Zeus’s anger did not stop with Prometheus; he also sought to punish humanity for receiving fire. He ordered Hephaestus to create Pandora—the first woman—from clay. Each Olympian contributed gifts to Pandora: Aphrodite gave her beauty; Athena taught her crafts; Hermes instilled her with cunning and deceitful speech. Pandora was given a jar (later mistranslated as a “box”) containing all evils that could afflict humanity.
Despite warnings from Prometheus never to accept gifts from Zeus, Epimetheus—Prometheus’ less wise brother—was captivated by Pandora’s beauty and took her as his wife. Pandora’s curiosity led her to open the jar entrusted to her by Zeus. As she lifted the lid, evils such as disease, sorrow, and death escaped into the world, spreading misery among humans. Only hope remained inside when she hastily closed it again.
Thus, through Prometheus’ defiance in giving fire to humanity and Pandora’s release of evils into the world, mankind gained both civilization and suffering—fire brought progress but also drew Zeus’s wrath, while Pandora’s actions ensured that hardship would forever be part of human existence.
What did Semonides fragment have to say about the origins of women?
Semonide wrote about the origins of women, inspired by Hesoid’s works and days.
He claimed that the gods made women’s minds separate from men, from animals and elements. In total there were 10 types, one of which was positive - the bumblebee. In this description, he describes the ideal woman - honest, beautiful and trustworthy.
Who was Heracles? Describe his origins, early life, marriage, 12 labours and his legacy.
Origins
Heracles (Greek: Herakles; Roman: Hercules) was one of the most celebrated heroes in Greek mythology, renowned for his immense strength, courage, and endurance. His origins are rooted in both divine and mortal realms. Zeus, the king of the gods, desired Alcmene, a mortal woman married to Amphitryon. To seduce her, Zeus disguised himself as Amphitryon while he was away at war. That night, Zeus extended the length of time by making it last three times longer than usual. Alcmene conceived Heracles from this union. The next day, Amphitryon returned home and also lay with Alcmene, resulting in the conception of Heracles’ mortal twin brother, Iphicles.
At birth, Heracles was originally named Alcaeus or Alcides, after his grandfather Alcaeus. However, Zeus later renamed him Heracles (meaning “glory of Hera”) in an attempt to appease Hera and mitigate her wrath against him for being Zeus’s illegitimate child. The name was intended to honor Hera, but it proved ironic as Hera harbored intense hatred for Heracles throughout his life.
The seer Teiresias foretold Heracles’ greatness shortly after his birth. He predicted that the child would perform incredible feats and eventually achieve immortality, ascending to Olympus as a god.
Infancy and Hera’s Wrath
Hera’s jealousy drove her to attempt to kill Heracles while he was still an infant. She sent two serpents to his cradle to strangle him. However, baby Heracles displayed his extraordinary strength by grabbing the snakes with his bare hands and strangling them to death. This act foreshadowed his future as a hero capable of overcoming seemingly impossible challenges.
Amphitryon realized that only one of the twins could have such divine strength and consulted the prophet Teiresias, who confirmed that Heracles was Zeus’s son.
Youth and Education
Heracles grew up under the care of Amphitryon and Alcmene in Thebes. Recognizing his potential, Amphitryon ensured that Heracles received training from the best tutors in Greece:
• Amphitryon taught him chariot driving.
• Autolycus, a famed thief and son of Hermes, instructed him in wrestling.
• Eurytos, an expert archer, trained him in archery.
• Castor, one of the Dioscuri twins, taught him combat with heavy armor.
• Linus, a musician and teacher of Orpheus, introduced him to music and taught him how to play the lyre.
Despite his talents, Heracles’ temper often got the better of him. In one instance, he accidentally killed Linus during a heated argument by striking him with a lyre. After this incident, Amphitryon sent Heracles away to live in the countryside as a shepherd to learn humility.
Early Exploits
While living in the countryside near Mount Cithaeron, Heracles encountered the Cithaeronian Lion, which had been terrorizing local herdsmen. He defeated the lion using brute strength and took its skin as a trophy. This marked his first heroic deed and established his iconic image wearing a lion’s skin as armor.
During this time, King Thespios hosted Heracles for fifty days while he hunted the lion. Each night, Thespios sent one of his fifty daughters to sleep with Heracles so they could conceive children by him. Unaware of Thespios’ plan at first, Heracles fathered fifty sons during this stay.
Marriage to Megara
After returning to Thebes as a celebrated hero, Heracles married Megara, daughter of King Creon. Together they had several children (the number varies depending on the source). However, Hera’s hatred for Heracles persisted. She struck him with madness that caused him to kill Megara and their children in a violent rage. Some versions suggest he believed he was killing enemies rather than his family.
Overcome with guilt after regaining his senses, Heracles sought redemption at the Oracle of Delphi. The Pythia instructed him to serve King Eurystheus for twelve years as punishment for his crimes. During this servitude, he would perform twelve labors (athloi) that would test his strength and endurance.
The Twelve Labors
The Twelve Labors were monumental tasks designed by Eurystheus (with Hera’s influence) to humiliate and potentially kill Heracles. Despite their difficulty, each labor showcased Heracles’ ingenuity, physical prowess, and occasional divine assistance.
1. Nemean Lion: The lion’s hide was invulnerable to weapons. Heracles strangled it with his bare hands and used its claws to skin it.
2. Lernaean Hydra: A serpent-like creature whose heads regenerated when cut off. With Iolaus’ help, he cauterized each stump after decapitation and buried its immortal head under a rock.
3. Ceryneian Hind: A sacred deer belonging to Artemis that could outrun arrows. He captured it after chasing it for a year without harming it.
4. Erymanthian Boar: He subdued this massive boar by driving it into deep snow.
5. Augean Stables: To clean stables filled with years of filth from thousands of cattle in one day, he diverted two rivers through them.
6. Stymphalian Birds: Using Athena’s bronze castanets (or rattle), he startled these man-eating birds into flight before shooting them down.
7. Cretan Bull: He captured this bull that had been terrorizing Crete and brought it back alive.
8. Mares of Diomedes: These man-eating horses were tamed after Heracles fed their master Diomedes to them.
9. Belt of Hippolyte: He obtained the Amazon queen’s girdle either through persuasion or battle (accounts differ).
10. Cattle of Geryon: He retrieved cattle guarded by Geryon (a three-bodied giant) after killing Geryon and his guards.
11. Apples of Hesperides: With Atlas’ help (who temporarily held up the sky for him), he stole golden apples guarded by an immortal dragon.
12. Cerberus: He descended into Hades and brought back Cerberus (the three-headed guard dog) without using weapons.
Legacy
After completing these labors—and numerous side adventures (parerga)—Heracles achieved redemption but continued facing challenges throughout his life due to Hera’s interference.
Ultimately, Heracles met his death when he donned a poisoned tunic given by Deianira (his second wife), believing it would rekindle her love for him but instead caused unbearable pain due to its venomous properties from the blood of Nessus (a centaur). Unable to endure the agony, he built himself a funeral pyre on Mount Oeta and ascended into flames.
Zeus granted him immortality upon death and welcomed him into Olympus as one of the gods—a testament to his resilience and heroic virtue despite enduring immense suffering throughout his life.
Palaephatus writes of “unbelievable things” such as both the Amazon women and the Centaurs.
What type of writing is this? What does he say?
Palaephatus was a rationalist writer.
He debunked the idea of the Amazonian women by saying that people likley mistook them for SOME females that fought alongside men in battle.
He debunked the idea of centaurs by saying that people likely saw men riding horses from afar and mistook them for one being.
Describe in depth the 12 labours of Heracles.
- Slay the Nemean Lion
The Nemean Lion had an impenetrable hide, making conventional weapons useless. Heracles first tried shooting arrows, which bounced off harmlessly. Realizing this, he tracked the lion to its cave with two entrances. Blocking one exit, he entered the other and engaged the beast in hand-to-hand combat. Using his immense strength, he strangled the lion to death. Struggling to skin it with his knife, he discovered that only the lion’s own claws could cut through its hide. Heracles then wore the pelt as armor. - Slay the Lernaean Hydra
The Hydra was a serpent-like creature with multiple heads that regenerated when severed. Assisted by his nephew Iolaus, Heracles cauterized each neck after decapitation to prevent regrowth. He buried the immortal head under a rock and dipped his arrows in its poisonous blood for future use. Hera sent a giant crab to aid the Hydra, but Heracles crushed it underfoot. This labour was disqualified because he received help from Iolaus. - Capture the Ceryneian Hind
Sacred to Artemis, this golden-antlered hind was incredibly fast and elusive. Heracles pursued it for a year across mountains and rivers until he cornered it near Arcadia. Some versions say he lightly wounded it with an arrow; others claim he captured it while it slept or used nets. On his way back, Artemis confronted him but relented when Heracles explained his predicament and promised to release the hind unharmed after showing it to Eurystheus. - Capture the Erymanthian Boar
Heracles tracked this massive boar to Mount Erymanthos, where he drove it into deep snow to immobilize it. He then subdued and carried it alive to Eurystheus, who was so terrified that he hid in a bronze jar upon seeing it. - Clean the Augean Stables
The stables housed thousands of cattle and had not been cleaned for years. Heracles diverted two rivers—the Alpheus and Peneus—through the stables to wash away the filth in a single day. However, this labour was disqualified because Heracles sought payment from King Augeas. - Slay the Stymphalian Birds
These carnivorous birds had metallic feathers they could shoot as weapons and lived in a swamp inaccessible by foot. Athena provided Heracles with bronze rattles to scare them into flight, allowing him to shoot them down with arrows or slingshot stones. - Capture the Cretan Bull
This bull had been sent by Poseidon but went mad after King Minos failed to sacrifice it as promised. Heracles tracked it across Crete by following its trail of destruction. When it charged at him, Heracles confronted it head-on and wrestled it into submission using only his bare hands. He either rode or restrained the bull back to Eurystheus. - Steal the Mares of Diomedes
These man-eating horses were fed on human flesh by their master, King Diomedes of Thrace. Heracles subdued them by killing Diomedes and feeding him to his own horses, which calmed them enough for capture. - Obtain Hippolyta’s Belt
Hippolyta initially agreed to give her magical girdle peacefully, but Hera spread rumors that Heracles intended harm, inciting a battle between him and the Amazons. In self-defense, Heracles killed Hippolyta and took her belt back to Eurystheus. - Steal Geryon’s Cattle
Geryon was a three-bodied giant whose herd was guarded by Orthrus (a two-headed dog) and Eurytion (a herdsman). Heracles killed them all and drove the cattle back to Greece after many challenges, including crossing deserts and rivers. - Retrieve the Golden Apples of Hesperides
The apples were guarded by nymphs and Ladon (a dragon). Depending on the version, Heracles either persuaded Atlas to retrieve them while temporarily holding up the sky or killed Ladon himself to take them directly. - Capture Cerberus
Heracles descended into Hades and obtained permission from Persephone and Hades to capture Cerberus without weapons. Using sheer strength, he subdued Cerberus and brought him back alive before returning him safely to the Underworld
What is the story of Medusa? Who were the Gorgans? Describe her story: origins, life and death.
Medusa and the Gorgons: Origins, Life, and Death
Origins
Medusa was one of three Gorgon sisters in Greek mythology, alongside Stheno and Euryale. The term Gorgon derives from the Greek word gorgos, meaning “terrible” or “grim.” According to Hesiod’s Theogony, the Gorgons were daughters of the primordial sea deities Phorcys and Ceto, who themselves were offspring of Gaia (Earth) and Pontus (Sea). Unlike her immortal sisters, Medusa was mortal.
In some versions, Medusa’s transformation into a monster occurred after Poseidon violated her in Athena’s temple. Enraged by this desecration, Athena punished Medusa by turning her beautiful hair into snakes and cursing her with the ability to turn anyone who looked at her into stone.
Life
Medusa’s life was marked by tragedy. Originally a beautiful maiden, she became a feared monster isolated from society due to Athena’s curse. She lived in a remote area near the Oceanus stream or Sarpedon, depending on the mythological source. Despite being monstrous in appearance, Medusa’s image evolved in art over time, sometimes depicted as both terrifying and beautiful.
Death
Medusa met her end at the hands of Perseus, a hero tasked with retrieving her head by King Polydectes. Perseus received divine assistance from Athena and Hermes, including a mirrored shield to avoid direct gaze, winged sandals, and Hades’ helm of invisibility. Using these tools, Perseus beheaded Medusa while she slept. From her blood sprang Pegasus, the winged horse, and Chrysaor, a warrior wielding a golden sword.
Afterward, Perseus used Medusa’s head as a weapon before giving it to Athena, who placed it on her shield (the Aegis) as a protective emblem
Who were the Amazons? Many heroes had encounters with the Amazons including Heracles, Bellerophon, Achilles and Theseus. Describe these encounters.
Heracles and Hippolyta (Ninth Labor)
• The Task: Heracles was ordered to retrieve the golden girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, as a gift for King Eurystheus’s daughter, Admete. The girdle symbolized Hippolyta’s authority and was a gift from Ares, the god of war.
• Initial Encounter: Hippolyta was impressed by Heracles’ heroism and willingly offered him the girdle. However, Hera, disguised as an Amazon, spread rumors that Heracles planned to abduct Hippolyta. This incited the Amazons to attack Heracles and his crew.
• The Battle: Believing he had been betrayed, Heracles killed Hippolyta in a rage and fought off the Amazons. He escaped with the girdle but left behind a trail of destruction. This episode reflects themes of misunderstanding and divine interference.
Bellerophon and the Amazons
• The Mission: Bellerophon was sent by King Iobates to fight the Amazons as part of a series of impossible tasks intended to kill him.
• The Victory: Riding Pegasus, Bellerophon defeated the Amazons by raining down arrows from above. This battle demonstrated his ingenuity and skill in overcoming overwhelming odds.
Theseus and Antiope
• Abduction of Antiope: Theseus accompanied Heracles on his expedition against the Amazons or encountered them separately. He abducted Antiope (or in some versions Hippolyta), leading to a war between Athens and the Amazons.
• Amazonomachy: The Amazons invaded Athens to rescue their queen but were ultimately defeated. Antiope either sided with Theseus or was killed during the conflict. This myth symbolizes Greek dominance over foreign powers.
Achilles and Penthesilea
• Penthesilea’s Backstory: The Amazon queen accidentally killed her sister during a hunting accident. Seeking redemption, she joined the Trojan War on the side of Troy.
• Battle with Achilles: Penthesilea proved her prowess by killing many Greek warriors and even holding her own against Ajax. When she faced Achilles, she fought valiantly but was ultimately slain by him.
• Achilles’ Tragic Love: As Penthesilea died, Achilles fell in love with her beauty and strength. Overcome with remorse, he cradled her body in his arms. His grief led to conflict with Thersites, whom Achilles killed after being mocked for his feelings.
Who were the centaurs?
Describe their origin according to Apollodorus Epitome
What is the divided nature of the centaurs?
The Origin of Centaurs (Apollodorus Epitome 1.20)
According to Apollodorus, the centaurs originated from the union of Ixion and a cloud formed by Zeus in the likeness of Hera. Ixion, king of the Lapiths, had lusted after Hera and attempted to force her. To test his intentions, Zeus created Nephele (a cloud resembling Hera) and laid it beside him. Ixion boasted that he had enjoyed Hera’s favors, leading Zeus to punish him by binding him to a fiery, spinning wheel that whirled through the air eternally. Nephele, impregnated by Ixion, gave birth to Centaurus, who later mated with Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion. This union produced the race of centaurs, wild and unruly beings.
The Divided Nature of Centaurs
Centaurs are characterized by their dual nature, representing both animalistic chaos and occasional wisdom:
• Savage Centaurs: Most centaurs are depicted as violent and unruly creatures. They are often associated with drunkenness and uncontrolled behavior. A notable example is the battle at Pirithous’ wedding, where centaurs became drunk and attempted to abduct Hippodamia and other women, sparking the famous Centauromachy—a war between the Lapiths (led by Pirithous and Theseus) and the centaurs. This conflict symbolizes their untamed nature.
• Chiron’s Wisdom: In contrast to their savage kin, Chiron stands out as a wise and noble centaur. He was renowned for his knowledge of medicine, music, and prophecy, serving as a mentor to heroes like Achilles, Asclepius, and Heracles. Chiron represents the potential for reason and virtue within the centaur race.
What was the centauromachy? How did it start? What is the larger key theme of the conflict between humans and centaurs?
The centauromachy was a battle between the Lapiths (humans) and the centaurs (who were perhaps thought to be related as cousins).
The Beginning of the Centauromachy
The Centauromachy, a famous mythological battle between the Lapiths and the centaurs, began during the wedding feast of Pirithous, king of the Lapiths, and his bride Hippodamia. The centaurs, invited as guests, were cousins to the Lapiths but notorious for their unruly behavior. The events unfolded as follows:
• Homer’s Account (Odyssey 21.287-304): Wine played a pivotal role in sparking the conflict. Eurytion, a centaur, became drunk and foolishly committed an outrage during the feast at Peirithous’ hall. In his madness, he caused destruction, prompting the Lapith heroes to rise against him. They mutilated Eurytion by cutting off his ears and nostrils with bronze weapons and expelled him from the feast. This incident marked the beginning of hostility between centaurs and humans.
• Ovid’s Account (Metamorphoses 12.189): Ovid elaborates on the wedding setting, describing how Pirithous hosted the centaurs in a tree-shaded cave for the celebration. Fueled by wine and their primal instincts, the centaurs disrupted the festivities by attempting to abduct Hippodamia and other female guests. Their actions escalated into violence.
Key Themes and Symbolism
The Centauromachy symbolizes the clash between civilization (represented by the Lapiths) and barbarism (embodied by the centaurs). It reflects Greek values of order overcoming chaos and has been portrayed in art and literature as a metaphor for human struggles against primal instincts.
