Motor Learning Principles: Lecture 2 Flashcards
Motor learning
Acquisition or modification of movement
Reacquisition of movement skills lost through injury
Relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience
Characteristics of motor skill learning
- improvement over time
- consistency
- stability
- persistence
- adaptability
- reduction in attentional demand
Transfers
Positive: beneficial effect of prior learning on learning of a new skill or performance of a skill in a new context
Negative: negative effect of prior learning on learning of a new skill …
Tests of learning
- retention
- novel variation of practiced skill
- transfer
Bilateral transfer
Transfer of learning that occurs between UEs or LEs (also: inter-manual or cross transfer)
Cognitive/motor program theory explanation
Speed-accuracy skills
When speed is emphasized, accuracy is reduced and vice-versa
When both are essential, there is a trade-off (reduction in both)
Fitt’s Law
Spatial accuracy
Accuracy is required of aiming movements for which spatial position of the movement’s end-point is important to task performance
Temporal accuracy
Accuracy of timing the movement - when the movement should be executed is important to task performance
Rapid forceful movements
Exception to speed-accuracy trade-off
Extremely forceful muscle contractions close to maximal effort with high speeds are associated with increased consistency
Ex: swinging baseball bat harder and faster drives the ball farther, but does not compromise timing accuracy
Declarative/explicit learning and memory
- facts/events
- steps in a process
Non-declarative learning
Non-associative
- habituation
- sensitization
Associative
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
Procedural
- tasks
- habits
Habituation
non-associative
decreased responsiveness as result of repeated exposure to a nonpainful stimulus
Ex: no longer noticing sensation of wearing a hat
Sensitization
non-associative
increased responsiveness following a threatening or noxious stimulus
Ex: flinching with needle prick after first needle prick
Classical conditioning
Associative
Stimulus leads to outcome
Operant conditioning
Associative
Behavior –> reward –> more behavior
Behavior –> adverse event –> less behavior
Tasks/habits
Procedural
Learning automatically with little attention or conscious thought
Repeating a movement many times will lead to procedural learning
Implicit vs explicit learning
Implicit procedural learning relies on basal ganglia and cerebellum
- explicit instructions, conscious cuing, auditory and visual cuing will work better
Explicit learning relies on interpretation of language
- tactile cues, demonstration, hand over hand will work better
Recall schema
motor parameters and movement outcomes over many trials creates a rule
Schmidt’s
Recognition schema
sensory consequences coupled with initial conditions to create a representation of expected outcomes
Ecological theory (newell)
Motor learning is a process: increased coordination of perception and action given the task and environmental constraint
Search for optimal motor response and perceptual cues to solve a task
Fitts and Posner Three Stage Model of Motor Learning
Cognitive stage
- understand the nature of task
- develop strategies use to carry out task
- determine how task will be evaluated
Associative stage
- Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements
- Refines performance to be more consistent
Autonomous stage
- Performance is automatic
- Low degree of attention required
Gentile’s two stage model of motor learning
Initial stage (fixation)
- getting the idea of the movement
- organizing movement pattern
- learning relevant features (reg vs non-reg)
Later stage (diversification)
- adapts movement pattern to demands of any performance situation
- increased consistency
- low effort required
Bernstein’s three stage model of motor learning
First stage - novice
- reduce/freeze degrees of freedom to a minimum
Second stage - advanced
- release some additional degrees of freedom, some synergies develop
Third stage - expert
- release all degrees of freedom (flexibility)
OPTIMAL motor learning theory
(Enhanced expectations + autonomy + external focus) + increase focus on task goal = increase motor performance and motor learning
Emphasis on motivational factors (social, cognitive, affective, self-efficacy)
Verbal instructions - factors to consider
- amount should consider attention and working memory limits
- verbal analogies may encourage implicit learning
- instruction can influence performance negatively
Visual demonstration
Demonstration leads to better learning than other instruction forms when the skill being learned requires the acquisition of a new pattern of coordination
Neural basis
Visual cues with demonstration
- results from the direct observation of a person performing or learning a skill
- demonstration should precede practice
- can demonstrate as frequently as necessary
- learners should self-select when to receive demonstration
Manual guidance - tactile cuing
- assistance or facilitation
- do not do too much for the person
- withdraw guidance as person develops mvmt
- allow for error so learner can correct
Feedback
Task-intrinsic
- visual
- auditory
- proprioceptive
- tactile
Extrinsic/augmented
- knowledge of results
- knowledge of performance
Knowledge of results
Externally presented information about the outcome of an attempt to perform a skill
Ex: you walked 10 ft farther today than yesterday
Knowledge of performance
Externally presented information about movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome
Ex: you should lift your toes as you land on your heels
Timing of augmented feedback
Concurrent
- while person is performing skill
- positive or negative effect
- variations can influence whether learners become dependent on FB
Immediate
- too quick FB does not allow learner time to internalize or process movement
Terminal/summative
- provided after a person has completed skill
Frequency of feedback
- learner becomes dependent on extrinsic FB
- learning is initially easier and less effortful
- learner is less likely to develop their own error detection and correction processes
- during practice, FB should be primarily informative
Massed practice (at a time)
Amount of practice time in trial greater than amount of rest between trials
Longer, fewer sessions
Ideal when treatment goal is conditioning
Continuous skills
Distributed practice (over time)
Amount of rest between trials is equal to or greater than amount of time for a trial
Some learning improves when people practice skills in more frequent and shorter practice sessions
Allows for performance reflection
Better when:
- safety is a concern
- limit or avoid fatigue
- limit symptom provocation
Practice conditions
Practice amount at a time
- Massed vs distributed
Practice of specific task and variability of task
- constant vs variable
Practice sequencing
- blocked vs random & contextual interference
Whole vs part task practice
Constant practice (task)
Practice of one variation of the skill
Pts. may need sensory, cognitive, perceptual practice in a more constant fashion prior to making it more variable
Ex: sit to stand from same chair height and firmness
Variable practice (task variance)
Refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics while practicing a skill
- increases ability to adapt and generalize learning
- more difficult during acquisition and tends to degrade performance
- increases learning and transfer
Constant vs variable practice
Constant: free throw practice from line; initially improved w practice but upon retest was back to baseline
Variable: practiced from other positions; initially improved and better than baseline at retest
Blocked practice (sequence)
Practice a task several times before moving onto the next task
Practice sequence can be blocked and have constant/variable skill practice
- sit to stand for several trials from same surface (blocked, constant)
- sit to stand for several trials from different heights and surfaces (blocked, variable)
Random practice (sequence)
A practice sequence where several tasks are practiced in no particular order
The same task is rarely repeated on consecutive trials
Does not integrate well with constant practice, but does with variable
Best for retention transfer
Contextual interference
The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice
Effect occurs when a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning
Challenge point hypothesis
Dosing practice
Challenge is required to engage the cognitive processes associated with motor learning
Point of optimal challenge that yields maximum practice benefit
Experimental variables
- skill level
- task difficulty
Motor tasks represent different challenges for performers of different abilities
Predicted success vs nominal task difficulty
