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Atar Physed > Motor Learning And Coaching > Flashcards

Motor Learning And Coaching Flashcards

1
Q

Classification of motor skills

A

Movement precision
- fine
- gross
Type of movement
- discrete
- serial
- continuous
Predictability of the environment
- closed
- open

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2
Q

Movement precision
- gross motor skills

A

Involve movement of major muscle groups resulting in large body part movement
- large amounts of foe exerted by the muscles
- whole body movements
- requires coordination of large muscles to coordinate movements

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3
Q

Gross motor skill examples

A

Walking
Running
Balance
Jumping
Coordination
Kicking
Striking

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4
Q

Movement precision
- fine motor skills

A

Involve movement of smaller muscle groups resulting in more precise movement often involves coordination between the hands and eyes
- small amounts of force exerted by the muscles
- precise movements
- often involves coordination between the hands and the eyes

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5
Q

Fine motor skill examples

A

Writing
Typing
Guitar
Darts
Golf putt

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6
Q

Type of movement
Discrete

A

Having clear beginnings and endings
- brief and well-defined
- skill can be repeated but performer must start from the beginning
- single, specific skill

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7
Q

Discrete examples

A

Shot in goal
Cricket shot
Dive from platform
Penalty kick in soccer

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8
Q

Type of movement
Serial

A

Made up of numerous of discrete skills which are put together in a certain order to form an integrated movement
- more complex movement

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9
Q

Serial examples

A

Triple jump
Floor routine in gymnastics
Involving lots of discrete skills

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10
Q

Type of movement
Continuous

A

Do not have a clear beginning or end inning and it is impossible to define exactly where the skill starts and where it stops
- the same movement is repeated in a cycle over an over again

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11
Q

Continuous examples

A

Cycling
Jogging
Dribbling in hockey
Running
Walking
Swimming

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12
Q

Predictability of the environment
Closed

A

Where the performer has he greatest control over their performance environment (whether, playing surface, opponent) and usually require repetition of a successful movement pattern
- typically occurs in static (fixed) environment
- movements not affected by the environment and tend to be more habitual
- has a defined beginning and ending
- involves a pre-learned pattern of movement
- decison making and made prior to performance
- skills tend to be internally/self paced (performer determines when to start the skill)

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13
Q

Closed examples

A

Gymnastics
Free throw in basketball
Golf putt

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14
Q

Predictability of the environment
Open

A

Where the performer is required to have flexibility and adaptations in the execution of a skill under a constantly chasing environment on time pressure
- typically occurs in dynamic (changing) environment
- movements need to be continually adapted to meet the demands of the task
- no defined beginning or ending
- skills are predominantly perceptual (adaptations can occur)
- decision making made during the performance
- skill are mostly externally paced (performer produces a skill at a time determined by an external source)

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15
Q

Open examples

A

Kayaking
Block in volleyball
Pass in football
Batting in cricket

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16
Q

Complexity of the task
Simple

A
  • quickly learned, often by imitation of the demonstration
  • no time pressure
  • one cue only
  • no opposition players
  • speed not important
  • accuracy important
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17
Q

Simple examples

A

Hitting a baseball off a tee
Pushing a sideline ball - hockey

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18
Q

Complexity of the task
Complex

A
  • require a longer learning and practise time
  • time pressure
  • many cues
  • many available responses
  • speed important
  • accuracy important
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19
Q

Complex examples

A

Hitting a baseball that has been thrown by a pitcher
Tomahawk
Running in touch

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20
Q

Fitts and posner phases of moto learning

A

Cognitive stage - what is to be done
Associative stage- refine technique and perform basic skill
Autonomous stage - focus on strategy and tactics

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21
Q

Cognitive stage - what is to be done

A
  • performer learns the nature and demands of the task
  • performance level is inconsistent with frequent large errors - trial and error is common
  • athletes more concerned with what to do rather than how to do it
  • learner begins to develop the basic motor patterns for the task
  • movement consciously controlled
  • little, if any, cue recognition
  • demonstration of the skill prior to to performance and immediate feedback to correct errors is vital
  • all instructions, explanations and feedback must be kept simple
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22
Q

Associative stage - refine technique and perform basic skill

A
  • also referred to as the practise or intermediate stage
  • characterises by plenty of practise to develop and consolidate motor programs
  • athlete associated environmental cues with actions
  • parts of the skill became automatically controlled
  • consistency improves
  • size and frequency of errors decreases
  • external feedback is important but learner begins to understand and use internal feedback
  • feedback contains more specific information
  • selective attention improves
    The length of time in this phase varied depending on:
  • takes complexity
  • level of ability
  • amount of practise
  • amount of quality of feedback
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23
Q

Autonomous stage - focus on strategy and tactics

A
  • performers movement are fluent, well coordinated and seemingly effortless
  • increased speed and accuracy of response to a given situation
  • attends to relevant cues only - selective attention is high
  • little variability in day to day performance
  • able to detect and self-correct errors
  • skills are almost automated
  • little attention given to technique allows more attention to be Ivan to decision making and the applications of tactics and strategies
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24
Q

The information processing model of learning

A

The information processing model is based on the central nervous system that controls the body. This model describes separate cognitive stages involving perception, decison making and response execution to enable a performers decision making to occur prior to any action

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25
Q

Information processing describes how performers

A
  • take in large amounts of information from the environment
  • analyse and interpret the information
  • make decisions about the information
    The information processing model is a 4 stage process
    1. IDENTIFICATION OF STIMULI / INPUT - information received by sensory system - mainly sight, sound, touch
    2. RESPONSE IDENTIFICATION / DECISION MAKING - PROCESSING - information analysed, interpreted and response selected
    3. RESPONSE / OUTPUT - selected movement is produced
    4. FEEDBACK - information about performance is received - can be internal / external or both
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26
Q

Stage 1 identification of stimuli / input

A

This stage involves the sensory mechanism detecting signals / cues in the environment (also known as “display”)
Information is received form the environment via
- sight
- sound
- touch
- proprioception
- equilibrium
The information is gathered for both internal and external sources
Much of the information received is irrelevant to the performer and discarded
- high level performers are better at filtering irrelevant information
Relevant information is sent to the brain for further analysis and processing

27
Q

Stage 2 response identification / decision making - processing

A

The brain processes all the data received from the sensory system
This system involves 3 sequential processes:
1. Perceptual mechanism / stimulus dentition
2. Decision making mechanism
3. Effector mechanism / response selection

28
Q

Stage 2 processing
- 1. Perceptual mechanism / stimulus detection

A

The perceptual mechanism analyses and interprets that data recovery form the sensory mechanism. This process is also known as stimulus detection and is influenced by the following:
- ABILITY OF THE SENSORY ORGANS
The better the sense organs involves, the more likely it is that a cue will be detected
Poor eyesight and hearing loss reduces the ability to detect cues
- STRENGTH OF THE CUE
The more intense a cue is, the more likely it is to e detected e.g. a loud bang from a start gun is more likely to be detected than a quiet bang
Making a cue stand out from the environment makes it easier to detect - this is the reason why sight screens are used in cricket
- NOISE
Noise refers to any irrelevant cues in the environment which can distract a players attention from the relevant cues
Noise does not just refer to audible distractions but any distracting factors in the environment
- LENGTH OF CUE
The longer the cue is present in the environment, the more likely it is to be detected
A fast bowler in cricket presents the cue (the ball) fr only a short time to the bast man compared to a slower bowler
- LEVEL OF AROUSAL
An optimal arousal level is necessary if all relevant cues are to be detected
An over aroused reformer can imagine signals that are not present
An under aroused performer can miss cues which are present
- EXPERIENCE
A more experienced performer can detect and analyse more cues in a shorter period of time
Experienced players have a better selective attention and focus only on relevant cues

29
Q

Stage 2 processing
- 2. Decision making mechanism

A

After all relevant date has been interpreted and analysed, the performer tends to makes a decision as to what response to make
The response selected is influenced by past experiences, knowledge and skill level of the performer
A skilful player has ore response to select from, and the decision making process takes longer as the number of response creases
- hicks law states the greater the number of possibilities available to a performer, the longer it takes for them to react
- 1 choice = fast reaction time
- 2 choices = slower reaction time
- 3 choices = slightly slower reaction time than 2 choices
- 4 choices = slightly slower than 3 choices
The more choices a person as, the more information that needs processing and the longer it takes to process, resulting in a slower reaction time

30
Q

Stage 2 processing
- 3. Effector mechanism / response selection

A

The effector mechanism and central nervous system prepare to produce the response selected as a result of the decision making process. The requisite motor program is retrieved from long term memory
Messages are sent via the neuromuscular system to the muscles and nerves which then create the specific movements required to produce the selected response

31
Q

Stage 3 response / output

A

This stage involves the neuromuscular system producing the movements required to produce the selected response
- the selected response is chosen by individual and the muscles are prepared to perform the task
He complexity of the task determines the amounts of time required for response programming
- simple skills have very fast response programming
- complex skills have very more information t process and therefore the response of the muscles is much lower
This stage is the production of the action selected by the excision making process and is the “movement time” component of the total response time
RESPONSE TIME - the time taken form the presentation of a stimulus to the competition of the movement
REACTION TIME - the time between the presentation of stimulus and the intitiative of the response. It is the time the information processing system takes to interpret the situation, formulate a motor program and transmit the information to the muscular system
MOVEMENT TIME - the time take form the initiation of the movement to the competition of the movement. It is the time the performers take to physically complete the movement when the muscular system has received the message from the brain via the effector system

32
Q

Stage 3 feedback examples
Ice hockey

A

REACTION TIME : time between detection the cue (the puck) and initiating a movement in repsonse
MOVEMENT TIME : time taken from initiating movement until the movement is complete
RESPONSE TIME : if the response time is too slow, the puck will be in the back of the net before the response is complete

33
Q

Stage 3 feedback response example
Athletics - sprints
Athletics - middle/long distance

A

Sprints - critical to outcomes of the event
At the elite level, the ability to “get out of the blocks” is essential to good performance
Middle/long distance - is much less important given the total time of the event
E.g. reaction time is of no importance time at the start of a marathon
The shorter the run, the greater the importance of reaction time

34
Q

Stage 3 feedback response example
Athletics - sprints
Athletics - middle/long distance

A

Sprints - critical to outcomes of the event
At the elite level, the ability to “get out of the blocks” is essential to good performance
Middle/long distance - is much less important given the total time of the event
E.g. reaction time is of no importance time at the start of a marathon
The shorter the run, the greater the importance of reaction time

35
Q

Stage 4 feedback

A
  • the athlete receives feedback about the performance of the selected response
  • the feedback can be internal, external intrinsic or external augmented
  • feedback provided during the performance (concurrent) can be used to help achieve the goal of the task immediately
    — a surfer who feels themselves over balancing uses Proprioceptive feedback to readjust their body position and maintain their balance
  • feedback provided after the performance (terminal) is typically extrinsic augmented and provides information about either the quality of the performance (qualitative) or result (quantitative) of the movement
    — the athlete and coach might compare their just completed performance against the desired performance and use the information to improve deficient parts of their technique for future attempts
36
Q

Types of cues used to improve performance

A
  • to maximise performance, a performer needs to be able to interpret and understand intern and external cues
  • the use of cues starts in the cognitive stage of learning and continued throughout the journey of any athlete
  • the use of demonstrations, instructions and practise all provide opportunities for learners to start to recognise cues and respond appropriately
  • three main types
37
Q

Visual cues

A
  • give the learner an opportunity to watch the desired skill or use visual aids as targets
  • often provided as a demonstration. This is the most effective method of introducing a performer to a new skill and is critical in the cognitive stage of learning
    — during a demonstration learners are shown how to perform the skill with 3 or 4 key points verbalised
  • visual cues are provided as an external cue and can be used for athletes in all stages of learning
  • cognitive phase e.g. - dance instructor putting cones/tapir on foot for feet positioning
  • associative phase e.g. - targets like tennis encourage sim
  • autonomous phase e.g. - tennis, opposition watching their change in grip for their second serve
38
Q

Verbal cues

A
  • a short task oriented phrase which directs a performers attention to take relevant stimulus in order to enhance performance
  • instruction and feedback provide information to the performer about what is being done correctly and incorrectly
  • verbal cues can increase in complexity and specificity as the performer becomes more experienced
  • coaches and players can use verb cues immediately prior to performance to focus on key points
    — e.g. a young footballer might say the worlds ‘through the ball’ to focus their movements when kicking
  • positive verbal cues can motivate performers
39
Q

Proprioceptive cues

A
  • proprioception is internal feedback which comes from sensory receptors - called ‘proprioceptors’ - found in joins, tendons and muscles
  • proprioceptors send information to the central nervous system detailing position, posture, equilibrium and internal conditions of the body
  • equilibrium related to the balance and positioning of the body. A performer uses this information to detect and correct errors and to adjust they body position is required
40
Q

Feedback

A
  • feedback is the information a performer relieves about their performance of a skill. It can be given prior to, during or after performance
  • feedback is essential to improvement as it allows the performer to compare their concurrent performance with desire performance
  • without feedback, a performer will not be able to correct errors and make changes to improve performance with the same speed and proficiency as when feedback is available
41
Q

Purpose of feedback
Motivation

A
  • a coach can provide feedback which motivates the performer to continue to strive for improvement for to re-assure the performer that progress is happening
  • motivational feedback must be realistic and has been know to have the pillowing impact of performers
    — they are more interested and involved in training
    — persist longer in learning a skill
    — apply greater effort to learning a skill
  • e.g. you are currently at stage 11.4 in the beep test. If you can get to stage 13.5, you will be considered to play in the starting line up
42
Q

Purpose of feedback
Reinforcement

A
  • feedback can be used to reinforce learning or performance which increases the chances of the behaviour being repeated
    — this is particularly important for individuals in the cognitive stage of learning as they begin to understand the demands of the task
    — positive feedback should be included in the feedback as should some words of encouragement to maintain motivation levels
  • feedback can also be given to the performer aimed at changing aspects of their performance
    — by providing information about what was performer correctly and incorrectly during the previous performance, the athlete can make the necessary changes to improve their next attempt
    — feedback is often provided using video analysis
43
Q

Types of feedback
Intrinsic (inherent)

A
  • intrinsic (inherent) feedback is received from sensory receptors inside muscles, joints and tendons which provided information to the performer about their execution of the skill
  • internal feedback allows a player to know how well the ball was hit as soon as contact between ball and stick is made
44
Q

Types of feedback
Extrinsic (augmented)

A
  • extrinsic (augmented) feedback is information received from outside the body
  • it is received by the sensory system and is seen, felt or heard and is delivered by a coach or instructor
  • provided additional information to the performer e.g. coach tells the player they missed he shot at goal because they had no follow through
  • extrinsic feedback can be provided withered during the performance e.g. a runner taking a message to a player, at half-time or other break in play. It can be also provided after the performance has been completed
  • can be classified as either knowledge of results or knowledge of performance
45
Q

Extrinsic feedback
Knowledge of results

A
  • subjective feedback that a performer receives regarding the quality of their movement or technique
  • analysis of technique and execution of the performance
46
Q

Extrinsic feedback
Knowledge of performance

A
  • objective feedback which provides the performer with information regarding the success of their performance in achieving a desired outcome
  • analysis of the results or outcome of the movement
47
Q

Timing of extrinsic feedback
Concurrent

A
  • provided during the performance via the coach
  • the player can use this information to immediately change performance is need be, or if the feedback is positive, maintains current performance
  • e.g. a soccer coach who provides verbal feedback to their defensive line during a game to immediately change their position
48
Q

Timing of extrinsic feedback
Terminal

A
  • provided by an external source after the movement has been completed
  • the performer can only use this feedback to change future performance
  • the individuals stage of learning dictates how long after the performance the feedback should be provided
    — cognitive - the sooner the better as novice performers will find it harder to reflect on their performance after a period of time
    — autonomous - whilst immediate terminal feedback is effective, it may also be beneficial to slow the performer to think about and evaluate their own performance before providing feedback
49
Q

Non verbal extrinsic feedback

A
  • non-verbal feedback is feedback communicated to the person without using words. Gestures, body language, posture, facial expression, hand signals can all convey information to a performer
  • non-verbal feedback is often used in conjunction it’s verbal feedback and can, if used correctly l, reinforce the verbal communication e.g. a coach with an angry facial expression giving the team a spray at half time about their poor first half performance has his verbal message reinforced by his facial expression
  • technological advancements have also allowed coached to provide non verbal feedback easily an efficiently
    — video feedback allows players to see themselves performing a given skill and compare with either past performances or an expert
    —— this is most effective when used in conjunction with verbal feedback, as the coach is able to direct the learner to key points of their performance
  • physiological feedback through the use of heart rate monitors and GPS trackers also allow coaches to provide non-verbal feedback to athletes easily
    — athletes are able to see if they are performing at the correct intensity and completing the desired movement patterns
50
Q

Verbal extrinsic feedback

A
  • this is spoken augmented feedback provided by a coach or similar
  • coaching guidelines suggest verbal feedback should take on the following characteristics
    — be specific, not general
    — be constructive, not reconstructive
    — be directed at behaviour which is changeable
    — be clear and concise
  • e.g. a baseball catcher may say to the pitcher “your rushing your pitches today and you look off balance when you release the ball - slow down and try and get some rhythm into your throws”
51
Q

Characteristics of effective feedback
Specific, not general

A

General
- “good work. Well done”
- contains no information that the performer can use to improve / change future performance
Specific
- contains information
- “ you played well today - your catching in the outfield and as excellent because you moved into the correct position under the ball much quicker than last week”

52
Q

Constructive, not deconstructive

A

Constructive recognises parts of the athlete behaviour and suggests further ways to improve. Reconstructive provides no motivation or encouragement
Constructive
- “an improved defensive effort today but you must work to make yourself an option in attack”
Deconstructive
- “did you catch a train to the ground? You are a passenger today - just terrible”

53
Q

Directed at behaviour which is changeable

A

Changeable
- “move your feet into position sooner”
Unchangeable
- “ you’re too short to play in first team”

54
Q

Clear and consise

A
  • Feedback should be easily understood and relate specifically to the situation at hand. Feedback should contain one or two points only to avoid overloading the performer
    • If feedback is unclear, the performer ma become confused about the situation and make errors
55
Q

Frequency of extrinsic feedback

A
  • No set rule regarding how often a coach should provide feedback during a skills session
    • Generally accepted that the frequency should be reduced as a performer moves through the stages of learning from cognitive to associative (and possibly to autonomous as not all performers move through to this stage)
56
Q

Factors affecting skill acquisition

A

Not all performers learn at the same speed or reach the same degree of expertise - many do not reach the autonomous
3 key factors which affect motor learning:
1. Individual differences : which relate to the characteristics of he learner
2. Task factors : which relate to the complexity and demands of the task
3. The learning environment : which is affected by the quality of coaching, practise and feedback provided to the learner

57
Q

Factors affecting skill acquisition

A

Not all performers learn at the same speed or reach the same degree of expertise - many do not reach the autonomous
3 key factors which affect motor learning:
1. Individual differences : which relate to the characteristics of he learner
2. Task factors : which relate to the complexity and demands of the task
3. The learning environment : which is affected by the quality of coaching, practise and feedback provided to the learner

58
Q

Age

A
  • The ability of a learner to take in and process information increases as they get older along with their ability to practise for longer. Coaches need to be aware of the physical characteristics of learners they are working with.
    • Children grow at different rates and those who mature earlier can perform at a higher level than less mature peers as they are bigger and stronger
    • Elder participants need to be careful to avoid problems associated with the degenerative aging process e.g. brittle bones, decreasing physiological capacities
    • When coaching children, there should be a focus on the following;
      • Delivering enjoyable and engaging sessions
      • Maximising participation through low ball:student ratios
      • Developing interpersonal skills
    • Coaches must be aware of the physiological and psychological limitations children poses and cater for this through reduced sessions times, increased variation in drills and activities, increased breaks for drinks etc.
    • In coaching older people and veterans, there should be a focus on the following;
      • Increased warm ups and cool downs due to reduced physical capabilities
      • Strict screening prior to engaging in a physical activity program
      • Appropriate footwear and other protective clothing
      • Careful application of progressive overload principle
59
Q

Skill

A
  • The coach needs to consider the current skill level of individual athletes in the squad before structuring their training program
    • A coach who plans training sessions which are too complex or too simple will not achieve the optimal level of skill development with the group e.g. the coach of an F grade team would not plan a training session which is more suitable to an A grade team as the players do not have the requisite skills
    • The coach/teacher must understand the Stages of learning and the impact it has on skill learning. This will help guide;
      • The frequency and type of feedback provided to the learner
      • The type of cues used
      • The style of leadership/coaching provided
      • The complexity of drills used
    • In general, learners in the cognitive stage require more frequent feedback delivered from the coach. The use of visual cues such as demonstrations and targets are also vital to development
    • More advanced performers can rely on less frequent feedback as they are able to self correct (and should be encourages to do so). Feedback needs to
60
Q

Physical fitness

A
  • Fitter performers are able to practise for longer and at a higher level than less fit performers. This increases their skill learning capability
    • As learners fatigue, their level of performance deteriorates. A fitter learner can practise for longer which improves their skill level and decreases the se and frequency of their errors
    • Coaches must adjust the intensity, frequency and duration of sessions to cater for the varying fitness levels of individuals
      • Initial testing can be used to help determine the starting point for athletes
    • Whilst it it’s important to develop the physiological capacity of learners, it must also be understood that athletes concentration deteriorates with fatigue
      • As a result coaches should ensure new skills/activities are delivered whilst players are fresh and not suffering fatigue
61
Q

Injury

A
  • Injured athletes need to modify their training program or risk further damage to the injured area
    • This may affect the performer’s skill development especially if the injury requires long term rehabilitation e.g. osteitis pubic which can take months to rehabilitate
    • It is importantly coaches understand the use of training principles and recovery methods in order to prevent injury to their athletes
    • These days it is common to make injured players sit with the coaches to gain a better perspective and develop game knowledge
62
Q

Level of competition

A
  • One of the most important roles of a coach is to endure their style of leadership meets the needs of their players. Part of this involves an understanding of this motivation to participate
    - For individuals who engage in social sport and participate for affiliation motives (desires to play its their mates) it is important to train/coach them accordingly i.e. democratic/laissez faire style of coaching which encourages fun and enjoyable
    - For individuals who engage in sport for task (desire to be part of a successful team) or individual (desire to be the best they an be) motives, the coach may need to adjust their style to endure that athlete remains motivated
63
Q

Type of activity

A
  • The type of training activities implemented by coaches must take into account a number of factors. These include, but are not limited to the following;
    - age
    - Skill level
    - Fitness
    - Injury
    - Level of competition
    - Motivation, concentration, arousal level of performer
    • Given most of these factors will vary depending on the stage of the season, it is important coaches modify the types of training activities to suit the needs of their players
    • Through the effective implementation of the training principle ‘specificity’, coaches can ensure they are preparing their there’s to meet the demands of their sport
      Technological advancements such as the use of GP devices and heart rate monitors have ensures coaches can more easily replicate match intenisties

Atar Physed (6 decks)

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