Motivation And Emotion

Question 1

What is motivation?

Answer 1

Motivation refers to processes which influence the direction, persistence and vigour of goal direct behaviour. When motivations are achieved, thwarted or threatened, we feel emotions.

Question 2

What is emotion?

Answer 2

Affective states, adaptive and they help us negotiate our environment and communicate.

Question 3

Who proposed that motivation and emotions are inextricably linked?

Answer 3

Richard Lazarus

Question 4

Explain the biological perspective of motivation.

Answer 4

Motivation to achieve and maintain physiological homeostasis. Disruptions to homeostasis motivate us to restore balance.

Question 5

Explain the psychodynamic perspective of motivation.

Answer 5

Motivation is understood in context of personality development. Unconscious motives, with conscious mental processes, guide emotions and behaviour.

Question 6

Explain the humanistic perspective of motivation

Answer 6

Humans are motivated to achieve personal growth or reach full potential, and self actualisation (Maslow).

Question 7

Define homeostasis

Answer 7

A state of physiological equilibrium actively maintained by the body. Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produces drives; internal state of tension motivates organism to reduce tension. Doesn’t explain why we increase drives.

Question 8

Explain the cognitive perspective of motivation

Answer 8

Driven to maximise pleasure and minimise stress (Gray). BAS and BIS, internal drives and external incentives, intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivations.

Question 9

Explain BAS

Answer 9

Behavioural activation system, which is activated by signals of potential reward and gratification; positive emotions and approach behaviour. Located in the prefrontal lobe in left hemisphere.

Reward cues = BAS = desire, anticipation, approach, behaviour

Question 10

Explain BIS

Answer 10

Behavioural inhibition system, activated by signals of potential pain, publishers and non-reinforcement.

Punishment cues = BIS = aversion, fear, depression, pain, anticipation, avoidance behaviour.

Question 11

What are incentives?

Answer 11

Environmental stimuli that pull organisms towards a goal.

Question 12

Explain the hierarchy of needs

Answer 12

Proposed by Abraham Maslow as he believed humans strive for personal growth. A pyramid involving hierarchy towards self-actualisation. Consists of deficiency needs and growth needs. Regression occurs if the lower needs - deficiency - are not met.

Question 13

What are some criticisms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 13

You can aspire to growth needs before deficiency, concepts are ill-defined.

Question 14

Explain growth needs and deficiency needs.

Answer 14

Growth: from cognitive needs (knowledge and understanding), to aesthetic needs (beauty, symmetry) to self-actualisation.
Deficiency: physiological needs (food and drink), safety needs (security, psychological safety), belongingness and love needs (affiliation, acceptance, affection), esteem needs (approval and recognition).

Question 15

Explain the self-determination theory.

Answer 15

Established by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. Assumes we seek to improve, self-actualise and grow. Identifies three fundamental psychological needs; competence, autonomy and relatedness.

Question 16

What types of motivation are there?

Answer 16

• amotivation
• extrinsic motivation
• intrinsic motivation

Question 17

Explain amotivation

Answer 17

Non-regulated, and there are no internal or external motivation. There’s no perceived reason to participate and behaviour is not self-determined.

Question 18

Explain extrinsic motivation

Answer 18

Consists of three components.

• external regulation, behaviour motivated by desire for external reward and avoiding punishment.
• introjected regulation, internalised reasons tied to self-administered rewards and punishment.
• identified regulation, behaviour is self-determined but not enjoyable.

Question 19

Explain intrinsic motivation.

Answer 19

Internal regulation, behaviour is self-determined and driven by inherent pleasure.

Question 20

Define behaviour.

Answer 20

Behaviour consists of a spectrum, where it starts as not self-determined - where amotivation sits, a middle part where extrinsic motivation sits and the bottom which is self-determined, where intrinsic motivation sits.

Question 21

What is metabolism?

Answer 21

Metabolism refers to the body’s rate of energy utilisation. The set point is the standard by which body weight (or fat mass) is regulated. Sets the range for body weight and can be shifted.

Question 22

Explain biological processes involved in eating

Answer 22

Glucose levels, stomach distension (release of cholecystokinin) and leptin levels.

Question 23

Explain brain mechanisms involved in eating.

Answer 23

Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, pituitary

Question 24

What psychological mechanisms relate to hunger?

Answer 24

Positive and negative reinforcement, attitudes and beliefs, habits and body ideals. Expectation of eating being pleasurable becomes strong motivator of behaviour. Eating without needing to, social environment can influence eating patterns. Times of day we eat and types of food are influenced by culture.

Question 25

What are some environmental and cultural factors relating to hunger?

Answer 25

• food variety
• classically conditioned cues
• eating with others
• time of day

Question 26

What are the health risks of obesity and overweight?

Answer 26

• CVD
• type 2 diabetes
• mental illness
• social stigma e.g. Prejudice, stereotypes

Question 27

What are some biological and environmental factors relating to obesity?

Answer 27

• genetic component; heritability of 40-70%
• environmental: access to inexpensive, high calorie convenience foods. Upsizing of meals, decreased physical activity, reinforcement of eating through dopamine release.
• gene-environment interaction and Pacific Islanders: genetically predisposed to obesity
• cultural emphasis on quantity over quality
• increased sedentary behaviour
• losing weight; surgery, lap band or stomach stapled.

Question 28

What is anorexia nervosa?

Answer 28

An eating disorder in which individuals have an intense fear of being fat. Involved severely restricting food intake to the point of starvation, view themselves as fat despite being severely underweight, health problems include cessation of menstruation, bone loss, stress on the heart.

Question 29

What is bulimia nervosa?

Answer 29

An eating disorder where people are afraid of becoming fat. Occurs in phases, binge eating and purging. Can appear to maintain a normal weight, health problems include gastric problems, gum disease and severely eroded teeth.

Question 30

What are the causes of anorexia and bulimia?

Answer 30

Genetics, high concordance rates for twins.
- personality factors: perfectionism - anorexia. Low impulse control, depression, anxiety - bulimia.
- environmental/societal; more common in societies with thinness ideals.
Early intervention most effective for treating these disorders, causes could be abnormal neurochemical and hormone activity.

Question 31

How have behaviours changed regarding sex?

Answer 31

Sexual education classes, engaging in sexual behaviours earlier and more often, delaying intercourse until marriage has declined.

Question 32

What are some psychological, cultural and environmental factors of sex?

Answer 32

Psychological: sexual fantasy, stress, fatigue, interpersonal difficulties.
Cultural: acceptance of certain sexual practices, religious beliefs.
Environmental: accessibility of sexual material.

Question 33

What are the three dimensions of sexual orientation?

Answer 33

Self identity: the way we perceive ourselves
Sexual attraction: who we are attracted to sexually
Sexual behaviour: who we actually engage in sexual behaviour with

Question 34

Explain the evolutionary and psychological views of affiliation.

Answer 34

Evolutionary perspective: greater access to sexual partners, protection from predators, greater division of labour, sharing of knowledge.
Contemporary psychological perspective: positive stimulation, emotional support, attention, social comparison.

Question 35

Explain achievement goal theory.

Answer 35

At individual level: mastery orientation focuses on maximum effort towards personal improvement and skill perfection. Ego orientation focuses on out-performing others with minimal effort.
At contextual level: focuses on motivational climate

Question 36

What are mastery approach goals?

Answer 36

Desire to master a task and learn new knowledge and skills

Question 37

What are ego approach goals?

Answer 37

Competitive orientation that focuses on outperforming others.

Question 38

Explain mastery and ego avoidance goals.

Answer 38

Mastery avoidance: reflect a fear of not performing up to one’s own standards
Ego avoidance: reflect a fear of being outperformed by others

Question 39

Explain high and low need achievers

Answer 39

High need: high stress, high importance and high challenge tasks outperform low need achievers. Relaxed low importance and easy tasks don’t perform better. Persist longer in the face of adversity, internalise responsibility and choose intermediate difficulty.
Low need: choose the easiest or most difficult, reduce outcome uncertainty.

Question 40

Explain the three types of motivational conflict.

Answer 40

Approach-approach conflict: choose between two desirable alternatives, losing the one that is not chosen.
Avoidance-avoidance: choose between two undesirable alternatives, both of which you would prefer to avoid.
Approach-avoidance: attracted and repelled by the same goal, both want and don’t want the outcome

Question 41

What are the four major components of emotions and how do they influence one another?

Answer 41

Emotions are affective states involving cognitive, physiological and behavioural responses to events.
Sharing four common features:
- triggered by internal or external eliciting stimuli
- result from our appraisals of eliciting stimuli
- respond physiologically to the appraisals
- expressive and instrumental behavioural tendencies

Question 42

Explain facial expressions and cultural display rules.

Answer 42

Same facial expression can be due to different emotions. Contextual cues enhance accuracy, most people identify happiness, disgust, surprise, sadness, anger and fear based on facial expressions alone.
Cultural display rules: cultural differences in emotional identification and expression. When and how particular emotions are to be expressed, go beyond facial expressions.

Question 43

Explain the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.

Answer 43

Arousal too low or too high, performance negatively affected. Moderate levels result in optimal performance. The more complex the task, the lower the arousal required for optimal performance. The simpler the task the higher the arousal required to optimally perform.