Motivation Flashcards
What are the two components of motivation?
Direction
Intensity
What are the 6 major theories of motivation?
- Drive theory
- Cognitive evaluation theory
- Attribution theory
- Competence motivation theory
- Achievement motivation theory
- Self-efficacy theory
What are 5 guidelines for building motivation under the interactional approach?
- Analyse personality and situation and their interaction
- Understand people’s multiple motivations for involvement
- Set the situation/environment to enhance motivation
- Consider the approach/attitude of the coach in its influence on motivation
- Use behaviour modification to change participant’s motives
What is the self-determination theory of motivation and who developed it?
Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000)
All people are motivated to satisfy 3 general needs:
1. The need to feel competent
2. The need to feel autonomous
3. The need for social connectedness or belonging
What branch of psychology does Drive Theory fit within?
Behaviourism
Explain the basis of Drive Theory
Individuals will behave in ways to satisfy their needs.
This behaviour is determined by the interaction of ‘drive and incentive’ and ‘learned habit’.
What is latent learning with respect to Drive Theory?
Learning is taking place but this is not observed as the individual is not motivated to apply it
Whilst Drive Theory has been largely discounted, what has it highlighted the significance of?
Incentive motivation
Define (strength of) incentive
The attractiveness of various goals to the individual and the outcomes that might be achieved
What are the 7 major incentive systems identified for sport?
- Aggression
- Power
- Independence
- Competition
- Stress
- Success
- Excellence
ASP ICES
What branch of psychology does attribution theory fall within?
Cognitive aproach
What is the focus of attribution theory?
How people perceive/explain their successes and failures
What are the “attributions” as considered within attribution theory?
Perceived causes of success and failure
What do attributions tell us about a person and what do they affect in terms of behaviour?
Attributions reveal individual’s motivational structures
Attributions affect the effort and persistence we devote and thoughts/feelings about performance
How athletes explain or attribute their performance affects their expectations and emotional reactions which in turn influence future achievement motivation
What are the 3 categories within which attributions fall?
Stability
Locus of causality
Controllability
What are the 4 attributes that fall in the matrix of locus of causality vs stability?
Ability (internal, stable)
Task difficulty (external, stable)
Effort (internal, unstable)
Luck (external, unstable)
What bias often exists in differing attributions for success and failure and why?
Success - internal - enhanced feelings of pride
Failure - external - reduced feelings of shame
Help defend self-esteem/ego
What implication does stability have for achievement behaviour?
Stable - expect same outcomes again
Unstable - expect possibility of different outcomes
Define learned helplessness and the approach to help resolve this
The acquired belief that failure is inevitable and have no control over negative events
Help the individual by attributing failure to unstable controllable factors
What is another name for achievement goal theory?
Goal orientation theory
What are the 4 theories of achievement motivation?
- Attribution theory
- Achievement goal theory
- Need achievement theory
- Competence motivation theory
What 3 factors interact to determine motivation according to achievement goal theory?
- An individual’s achievement goals
- Perceived ability
- Achievement behaviour (performance, effort, persistence and task choice (realistic/unrealistic)
What are 3 goal orientations in achievement goal theory?
Outcome (ego) orientation
Task (mastery) orientation
Social goal orientation
What is the value of task goal orientation?
Strong work ethic and persistence in the face of failure
Protection from disappointment, frustration and a lack of motivation
Easier to feel good about yourself and demonstrate high perceived competence than outcome oriented individuals
Difficult of task selected by task-oriented individuals vs outcome oriented where low perception of competence
Task oriented - moderately difficult/realistic
Outcome oriented (when also low perceived competence) - very difficult (no one would expect them to do well) or very easy (guaranteed success)
Explain one problem with outcome goal orientation?
Difficulty maintaining high perceived competence - they judge themselves by how the compare with others but cannot control how others perform
Explain two bases of thought for how individuals view their ability and how it can change?
How does this affect goal orientation?
Entity view - fixed and unable to be changed (often adopt an outcome goal orientation)
Incremental focus - can adopt a task goal orientation and change ability through hard work and effort
What is another lens to usefully categorise goals in addition to outcome/task orientation?
Which of these is positively related to physical activity levels?
Approach (achieving a positive outcome) versus avoidance (avoiding a negative outcome)
Approach goals (whether task or mastery oriented) have been found to be positively related to physical activity levels
What are key aspects of the social climates of achievement settings?
The tasks that learners are asked to perform
Student-teacher authority patterns
Recognition systems
Student ability groupings
Evaluation procedures
Times allotted for activities be performed
Why is the motivational climate important according to achievement goal theory and what impact does this have on achievement behaviour?
Motivational climate influences the type of achievement goal adopted
Motivation climate of mastery/task goal orientation - more adaptive motivational patterns e.g.
- positive attitude
- increased effort
- effective learning strategies
Motivational climate of outcome orientation - less adaptive motivational patterns e.g.:
- low persistence
- low effort
- attribution of failure to low ability
What is the underlying premise of competence motivation theory?
People are innately motivated to feel worthy or competent and these are the primary determinants of motivation in all areas of human achievement
In competence motivation theory what are the two key factors which are considered and how do these affect motivation?
Two key factors:
- Perception of control (and whether can learn and enhance skills)
- Self-worth and competence evaluation
These interact to influence affective (emotional) state, which influences motivation
What feedback loop arises as a consequence of competence motivation theory?
Successful attempts at mastery promote feelings of high self-efficacy which lead to high competence motivation and further attempts at mastery (virtuous circle)
By contrast if the result is perceived failure, can lead to vicious circle
What is the key takeaway for coaches from competence motivation theory?
Enhancing perceived competence and control should be a primary goal
In need achievement theory, the interaction of what four factors are considered as influencing achievement behaviour?
- Personality factors (motive to achieve success vs avoid failure)
- Situational factors (probability of success vs incentive of success)
- Resultant behavioural tendence (resulting from interaction of 1 and 2) (seek out moderate challenges vs opt for easy or unrealistic tasks)
- Emotional reaction (pride vs shame)
In need achievement theory, the interaction of what four factors are considered as influencing achievement behaviour?
- Personality factors (motive to achieve success vs avoid failure)
- Situational factors (probability of success vs incentive of success)
- Resultant behavioural tendence (resulting from interaction of 1 and 2) (seek out moderate challenges vs opt for easy or unrealistic tasks)
- Emotional reaction (pride vs shame)
what are the achievement behaviours for high and low achievers per need achievement theory
High achievers:
- seek more challenging tasks
- prefer intermediate risks
- perform better in evaluative situations
Low achievers:
- avoid intermediate risks
- avoid challenging tasks (other than unrealistically difficult ones)
- perform worse in evaluative situations
What is the significance of need achievement theory in the context of contemporary achievement motivation theories more generally?
This is the framework for all achievement motivation theories
Other theories offer different explanations for underlying thought processes but behaviour predictions for high and low achievers are basically the same
What are the two most important contributions of need achievement theory to understanding achievement behaviour?
Understanding/predicting:
- task preference
- performance
What does cognitive evaluation theory (CET) propose to explain
- The relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations (eBook)
- Variability in intrinsic motivation (including the potential effect of extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation) (Weinburg and Gould)
What are the different elements of the continuum of intrinsic to extrinsic motivation to amotivation?
Intrinsic
1. Knowledge (pleasure/ satisfaction in learning etc)
2. Accomplishment (pleasure/satisfaction in mastery or creation)
3. Stimulation (fun, excitement, aesthetic pleasure)
Extrinsic
4. Integrated regulation
5. Identified regulation
THRESHOLD OF AUTONOMY
- Introjected regulation
- External regulation (control by external sources)
Amotivation
Explain integrated regulation
Aactivity is personally important because of a valued outcome rather than solely for itself e.g. training for competition
Explain identified regulation
Activity is valued highly even if not pleasant in itself e.g. contributes to growth/development
Explain introjected regulation
Motivated by external pressures e.g. working out to be attractive opposite sex
What are the psychological factors affecting motivation according to self-determination theory?
- The need for autonomy
- The need for competence
- The need for relatedness
Explain what relatedness means
To care for others and for them to care for you
Who devised cognitive evaluation theory?
Deci & Ryan (1985)
How does CET relate to self-determination theory?
CET is a sub theory of SDT developed to explain variability in intrinsic motivation
What does CET propose with regard to motivation?
Any event that affects an individual’s perception of competence and feeling of self-determination will also affect their level of intrinsic motivation
What are the 3 aspects of rewards that are relevant to intrinsic motivation as considered within CET?
- Informational aspect
- Controlling aspect
- Functional significance of the event
What is the potential impact of a controlling aspect of reward on intrinsic motivation?
Perceived as an external locus of causality which conflicts with the individuals need for self-determination. Leads to decrease in intrinsic motivation
In what circumstances can rewards be perceived as relating to an internal locus of causality?
Programmes where individuals have the opportunity to provide input about:
- choice of activity
- personal performance goals
- team/class objectives
What aspect of intrinsic motivation do the informational aspects of reward affect?
Feelings of competence
CET - how do winning and losing impact on intrinsic motivation
The informational aspect of winning/losing is important
Winning - higher intrinsic motivation
Losing - lower intrinsic motivation but ameliorated by performance-based feedback i.e. positive for meeting a certain standard albeit losing
Winning/losing is less important in determining intrinsic motivation than perception of how well performed
With regard to CET, explain the functional significance of the event
The relative strength of the informational and controlling aspects of the reward determine the functional significance of the event
What are strategies for increasing intrinsic motivation?
- Provide for successful experiences
- Set realistic performance goals
- Give rewards contingent on performance (increasing their information value)
- Use praise (verbal and non-verbal)
- Involve participants in decision making (increases perception of control and self-competence)
Who developed self-efficacy theory?
Bandura (1977, 1982)
What is self-efficacy?
Task specific self confidence
In what way does self-efficacy theory take an interactional approach?
Self-efficacy interacts with environmental determinants to drive behavioural change
What is the underlying premise of self-efficacy theory?
If an individual has sufficient skills and motivation then the major determinant of performance is self efficacy
What factors does the level of self-efficacy affect?
- Choice of activity
- Level of effort
- Persistence
- Goal setting (high self-efficacy means likely to set challenging goals)
What are the 6 principal sources of information from which self-efficacy is derived?
- Performance accomplishments
- Vicarious experience (modelling)
- Physiological states
- Emotional states
- Imaginal experiences
- Verbal persuasion
What is the three-stage process by which self-efficacy is increased by vicarious experience (modelling)?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
Determined by level of Motivation
Vicarious experiences - attention - factors on which level of attention depends and how to increase this?
Factors on which level of attention depends
- Respect for the person observed
- Interest in the activity
- How well can see and hear
How to increase attention
- Focus on a few key points
- Demonstrate several times
- Let individual know exactly what to look for
Vicarious experiences - strategies to increase retention
- Mental practice techniques
- Analogies e.g. liken tennis serve to throwing the racket
- Having learners repeat the main points aloud
Vicarious experiences - motor reproduction - strategies to increase
Teach lead up skills
Provide practice time
Vicarious experiences - strategies to increase motivation
- increase by using praise
- communicating the importance of learning the modelled activity
Self-efficacy - benefits of verbal persuasion?
- Enhance enjoyment
- Reduce perceived effort
- Enhance affective response
Self-efficacy - impact of imaginal expereinces
Generate beliefs about personal efficacy - imagining themselves or other behaving effectively
but can opposite can also be true
Explain in what way physiological states impact self-efficacy?
Physiological arousal (e.g. racing heartrate) can be seen as facilitative
or
associate aversive physiological arousal with poor performance/perceived incompetence/failure
Explain the relationship between self-efficacy and behaviour change
Virtuous (or vicious) circle - reciprocal relationship
What are the shortcomings of research into self-efficacy?
Not clear whether it is self-confidence more generally or task specific self-efficacy which is in operation.
Only single approach (self-report (questionnaire) used in research
Theory is incomplete as it cannot alone predict performance. It is necessary to also consider skills and incentives involved.
Define achievement motivation
A person’s motivation to achieve success and avoid failure
What does achievement motivation theory try to explain?
- Choice of activity
- Effort to pursue goals
- Intensity of effort
- Persistence
